Medica Materia – Alchemy
Plant Constituents, Active Isolation
When we think of plants potential physiological influences oftentimes contemplation becomes mysticism behind the discernment of that which yield’s the healing outcomes. While other times we may try to consider the science behind the mysticism and attempt to understand the phytochemistry that resides within the plants.
Magnum Opus
In this study we will attempt to partially remove the veil of a few basic properties into the form and functions of plants including their structural components. We will briefly discuss the primary and secondary metabolites, their elements, classifications and activities. We will be bringing familiarity to basic plant structures, paving the way to a more in-depth understanding of the wonderful world of plants.
While botany encompasses not only the biology of plants, it also includes the physiology, ecology and the classification of such. Phytochemistry is the study of plant constituents that composes the biological components. These plant constituents of biological components are the compounds that exert physiological changes within us, yielding the potential healing influence.
It may need to go without saying but for clarification our aim is to become familiar with concepts and terminology, thus the medicinal properties and activities referenced should not be considered as medical advice or treatment of any disease or illness. Think of plants as beings of support and not agents of control.
What Are Plant Constituents
Understanding plant constituent is expansive as phytochemistry is vast. A good starting point would be to first consider that fruits, vegetables, grains and herbs are composed of a complex set of reoccurring molecules that are commonly referred to as phytonutrients, phytochemicals or chemical constituents. Which are not only vitamins and minerals but many other compounds as well. A single plant whether it be fruits, vegetables, grains or herbs may consist of hundreds if not thousands of constituents (HA n.d.).
Simultaneously in a united approach these phytonutrients work synergistically in the plant to support growth, metabolism, reproduction and defense. This synergism is carried over in their effects or actions on the human body and our cells as well. That which supports the plants in their survival may potentially aid us in ours.
Entourage Effect
One should keep this whole plant synergy in mind as we can use Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) as an example as F. ulmaria contains amongst other beneficial constituents Salicylic acid (USDA 1992-2016) a phenolic constituent that was isolated and synthesized for reproduction and manufacturing of famous None Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin (Paterson, J. R., Lawrence, J. R. 2001). While many people have traditionally utilized F. ulmaria to support rheumatism, joint and muscle pain, including gastrointestinal upset such as dyspepsia and ulceration (HA n.d.). The same cannot be said about the former as aspirin has been shown to exhibit negative gastrointestinal side effects including such things as ulceration (Cunha, J. P. 2020). This is because they lack the synergism and thus the entourage effect of the other beneficial constituents.
To comprehend how plants exhibit an effect on the body and our cells, we will have to consider the constituents in there individual isolated states and momentarily step away from the plants totality. The plants chemical constituents that serve in its form and function may be initially subdivided into two main categories by their means of metabolic production.
Metabolic Production
First, Primary Metabolites such as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids serve in plant growth, metabolism and reproduction. While the other may be referred to as Secondary Metabolites such as flavonoids, terpenoids and various alkaloids which are produced from primary metabolites. Secondary metabolites serve in array of functions including plant attraction and defense. These secondary metabolites are also generally responsible for plants distinctive colors, aromas, flavors and/or activities.
Organic Elements
We should also consider the chemistry as well, take for example organic constituents consist of one or more carbon elements. These carbon elements typically form bonds between molecules that carry an electrostatic charge. These molecules that the carbon bond together are of an opposite charge and may be considered as covalent or having a covalent bond.
While on the other side of this polarity lays inorganic molecules that form un-ionized bonds otherwise known as an ionic bond and are typically associated with minerals (including some alkaloids). Molecules are often illustrated as line-angle drawings aka a skeletal structure or formula, whether it be a continuous chain or ring (Libretexts 2020)
Plants are known for their “organic” compounds due to the consistent bonding of molecules through carbon.
At one time the general census of organic chemistry was that of living organisms requiring, what may be likened to 🜀, Pneuma (Greek), Prana (Sanskrit), or Qi (Chinese) a “vital force” or “breath of life” quickening the organism. Not simply conceived as gas or a medium required by plants and animals to live. But rather a thought of something more ergō a life giving force over the whole being. Until the discovery of organic compounds ability to be synthesized, thus reducing the definition of “organic chemistry” to molecules containing carbon (HA n.d.). Thats right, I just said, “organic” simply refers to elements with carbon!
Reactive Groups
Organic constituents of plants are bound by oppositely charged ions from one molecule to the next in which there are three major subsets of carbon bonding; first those containing hydrogen, secondly containing oxygen and thirdly containing nitrogen bonds. It is helpful to understand the functional group as it typically is most reactive and generally responsible for the activity in the body and upon the cells (HA n.d.).
Hydrocarbon
Organic constituents containing Hydrocarbon bonds range from a simple single bond of hydrogen to carbon, to more complex bonds consisting of two or three bonds making the molecule reactive and thus the functional group of compound like that of aromatics consisting of three double bonds. The reactive groups of hydrocarbon structures would be the alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and arenes (aromatic hydrocarbons) (Ayelet. 2022).
Oxygen
Organic constituents containing Oxygen as the functional group would be the Alcohols, Ethers, Ketones, Aldehydes and Carboxylic acids along the lines of menthol, diethyl ether, flavones, cinnamaldehyde and acetic acid.
Nitrogen
Organic constituents containing Nitrogen as the functional group would include Amines, Amides, Nitriles (Ayelet. 2022) and Nitro groups such as alkaloids, proteins, cyanide and nitrogen oxide.
Like Dissolves Like
Additionally it is also helpful to understand the solubility ♏︎ of which these constituents are composed and released. Lets take into account one influential aspect determining water- or fat-solubility, that being the conductivity of ionization or its polarity (Gordon, E. 2021). Like mixing of oil 🝆 (non-polar) and water 🜄 (polar), they don’t mesh together.
For simplification, charged molecules (polar) typically form hydrophilic or water-soluble molecules. The potential hydrogen (pH) of the solution ♋︎ determines the extent at which the charged molecules will be released (HA n.d.). Greater the charge, the higher the pH (basic or alkaline), otherwise the lower the charge the lower the pH aka acidic 🜊 in nature. In other words “Like Dissolves Like”.
Whereas un-ionized or un-charged (non-polar) ions typically form lipophilic or lipid-soluble molecules. These un-ionized molecules are generally of an acidic nature and remain un-ionized in a acidic 🜊 solution (Gordon, E. 2021).
Primary Metabolites
Bringing the focus back to metabolic production lets discuss primary metabolites. If you recall earlier, we briefly mentioned the first constituents arising within plant cells would be the primary metabolites: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Vitally important as these are the energy producers enabling the plants to digest, assimilate and produce organic molecules for cellular structures such as cellulose or conveying information such as ribonucleic acid.
The primary metabolite that is carbohydrates aka saccharides or sugars may be classified by the number of their carbon atoms. Sugar as we all are too familiar with is sweet and put simply may be considered as glucose, fructose and sucrose.
Plant saccharides are formed from air, water and sunlight. The suns energy breaks down the water (H2O = O2 & CO2) and reforms it into saccharides (CH2O) and oxygen (O2). These saccharides are the main form of energy storage for the plants and are heavily concentrated in roots, tubers and rhizomes (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
The mini hydrogen bonds that make up the saccharide structures, connecting one atom to the next are highly hydroscopic. In other words, sugars absorb and dissolve rather quickly and easily in water.
Saccharides
Saccharides form chains or rings of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen such as monosaccharides or disaccharides. Monosaccharides as the name implies “mono” typically contains one sugar molecule, while disaccharides are typically formed from condensation of two monosaccharides. Oligomeric or oligosaccharides contain a few monosaccharide rings while polymeric or polysaccharides generally contain many condensed and varied monosaccharide rings (Rye, C., Wise, R., et al. 2016).
The diversity of monosaccharides is complex containing hundreds of molecules some specific to certain plant families while others are commonly present in most plants. Monosaccharides (CH2O) generally have 3 to 7 carbon atoms, one for each water (H2O) equivalent availability. The complexity of these monosaccharides may include trioses (C3 H6 O3) containing 3 carbon atoms, tetroses (C4 H8 O4), pentoses (C5 H10 O5), hexoses (C6 H12 O6), etc (Rye, C., Wise, R., et al. 2016). and their derivatives such as deoxypentoses, deoxyhexoses, dideoxyhexoses, as well as uronic acids, polyalcohols, esters, ethers, amongst others (HA n.d.).
Reactivity
The more sugars connected the more complex the sugar becomes aka more reactive. With more complex elements such as disaccharides, to illustrate this point (although not very complex) are formed through condensation. This condensation or formation is a process of hydrogen bonding of one monosaccharide to another monosaccharide releasing the water element thus creating a new bond termed a glycosidic bond (Bhagavan, N. V. 2001).
Monosaccharides
Two common monosaccharide constituents often found on labels of foods, supplements, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, etc. might be Ascorbic acid and Sorbitol. Ascorbic acid aka Vitamin C for example is heavily concentrated in many plants and their fruits such as the sepals of Hibiscus (Hibiscus syriacus) or the fruits of Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) and Rose hips (Rosa spp.) (HA n.d.). Speaking of the rose species, Sorbitol a monosaccharide derivative is commonly found in the fruits of the rose family (Rosaceae) such as apricots, plums, or cherrys for exemplification (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Sorbitol
Sorbitol being hydroscopic acts as a laxative and clearing agent within the gastrointestinal system potentially drawing moisture along with toxins into the system to facilitate excretion. Or as a humectant in cosmetics, either as an agent to moisten the skin or as a thickener for consistency of the product
As I mention in my teachings of nutrition, Ascorbic acid is an antioxidant and enzymatic cofactor aiding in iron absorption and may be needed for synthesis of connective tissue, neural messaging, gene expression, and maintenance of genome stability. (Higdon, J., et al. 2019).
Oligomeric Saccharides
Stepping up the complexity and thus the reactive groups we come to disaccharides and oligosaccharides. Commonly found Raffinose and Stachyose are oligomeric saccharides present in most legumes (T. Sako, & R. Tanaka 2011). Both disaccharides and oligosaccharides are formed when 2 to 10 monosaccharide molecules condense. These simple sugars are connected through a glycosidic bond such as in sucrose which may be isolated from Sugar Beet (Beta vulgaris), or Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) (K.A. 2022). When we consume carbohydrates the sugar gets broken down for energy, this allows the molecules to revert back to water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (O2) (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Polymeric Saccharides
Polysaccharides are another type of sugar molecule usually containing ten or more condensed monosaccharide sugar rings. These rings join to compose starches (storage molecules of plants), cellulose (cells of plant structures), pectins (flexible centers of plant cells), fiber, etc. (S. Lee 2017). Polysaccharides like these would perhaps be best extracted in hot water.
Plants, some more than others store energy in the form of starchy roots or tubers this energy storage is formed over the summer months as a means to boost growth the following spring. The oversized root may be referred to as a tuber, as in the roots of Potato (Solanum tuberosum) or Cassava (Manihot esculenta). Often the spring growth arises out of starchy underground branches referred to as rhizomes. Seeds also typically have a starchy element to support growth of the embryo referred to as an endosperm. These starchy roots, tubers and rhizomes including some seeds may be utilized medicinally as a poultice macerated into a bolus that is applied topically as a drawing agent to absorb contaminants whether it be splinters, stings, toxins, etc. Generally starchy roots, tubers, rhizomes and seeds are edible although not all are as some contain harmful alkaloids.
Another key group of polysaccharides would be those fruiting bodies of fungi.
The structural aspect of plants that is the rigidity of cell walls in addition to the starches that give roots, tubers and rhizomes stability we may also consider other plant structures as well. Like that of the leaf, stem or bark which are composed primarily of cellulose and lignins (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Cellulose a water insoluble constituent that serves in plant protection from dehydration due to celluloses gelling ability (HA n.d). Lignins are generally a tougher more ridged cell wall constituent heavily condensed in woods and barks. Though insoluble cellulose is hydrophilic, whereas lignins are also insoluble they tend to be more hydrophobic.
Cell Rigidity
Fiber
These forms of solubility are typically associated with digestive roughage and bulking agents commonly referred to as fiber. The insolubility of cellulose and lignins that resists pepsis as these vegetable residues pass through the digestive tract relatively intact. Give fiber the ability to normalize intestinal transit (reducing constipation), increase insulin sensitivity (balancing blood sugar), and supports weight-loss through satiety and more.
Inulin
Inulin, a polymer of fructose referred to as a Fructan is a water soluble fiber and medicinal constituent often found in the roots of plants. Inulin is heavily condensed in a number of different plant families, including Asteraceae, Boraginaceae, Campanulaceae, and many others. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) roots are sometimes roasted breaking down the Inulin to bring about the sweet taste of the fructose. Inulin may be utilized in liver support, balancing blood lipids (cholesterol), or strengthening immunity by means of feeding angi (probiotics) acting as prebiotics (P. Glibowski, & K. Skrzypczak 2017) in addition to other actions upon the body.
Pectins
Pectins are complex polymers with strong conductivity. Fruits are typically high in pectins as they are utilized in the formation of cell walls as well and therefore younger fruits tend to have higher concentrations. Apples are said to contain high quantities of pectins which enables them to form jells, in-fact apple pectins are often employed in jams and jelly confection. Pectins are a reoccurring constituent of the Rutaceae, Rosaceae, Malvaceae, and Asteraceae plant families. The medicinal properties of pectins service wound healing, ulceration, and digestive support whether it be to bulk up loose stools or draw out toxins (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Reflexive Effect
The slippery gelatinous hydroscopic constituent that is mucilage, a large condensed monosaccharide linear polymers containing pentose (C5 H10 O5) and hexose (C6 H12 O6) sugars. Mucilage is moderately common amongst plants but is fairly abundant in Cactaceae, Malvaceae, Fabaceae, Linaceae, Portulacaceae, and Boraginaceae plant families (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Generally these plant families utilize mucilage as a means of water storage protecting from dehydration like cellulose but to a much greater extent.
This type of compound is best extracted in cold water. Externally mucilaginous plant constituents may be utilized as an emollient bringing about relief to mild burns and irritated skin. Mucilage is an insoluble fiber that may be utilized as a demulcent within the body whether it be through direct or indirect contact. Being insoluble and resisting pepsis, mucilage cools down, coats and soothes hot, inflamed, irritated mucosal tissues of the body, particularly useful in digestive and urogenital ulceration. On top of that, mucilage having strong conductivity has the potential to absorb toxins and contaminants from the body whether from the digestive, urogenital or respiratory tract for expulsion thus aids in recuperation. Mucilage is likened to mucopolysaccharide hydrogel or Glycosaminoglycans or GAGs for short, GAGs partially compose the fluid matrix of the synovium thus supports mobility, especially after damage has occurred (HA n.d.).
Gums 🝉 are plant constituents similar to mucilage but are quite a bit thicker and stickier. Gums 🝉 are branch polymers and being so are highly soluble forming true gels when combined with water (HA n.d.). These gums 🝉 are secondary metabolites and serve as a means of protection that forms from specialized ducts which gets secreted in response to stress, infection or injury. Commonly referred to as exudates, these gums ooze out onto the exterior of the plant in a process know as gummosis. This is where the gum 🝉 absorbs water, expands and later dries into a hard semi translucent mass to seal off the wound or isolate an infection to facilitate healing (Shayla, H. 2021).
These gums can be found throughout the plant kingdom but are heavily concentrated in the Fabaceae, Burseraceae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae plant families. Most gums are relatively safe and may be used and consumed as medicinal agents. Gums are often employed as emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers in a multitude of applications but for exemplification, in foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics etc. (HA n.d.).
Gum arabic (Acaci spp.) is often spoken of when discussing gums 🝉, Gum arabic or Acaci gum which was used over a millennia ago by Ancient Egyptians as an adhesive in mummification of corpses (Shayla, H. 2021). Tragacanth gum (Astragalus gummifer) a medicinal agent praised by Ancient Greek physicians is now commonly used in cooking whether it be to thicken or maintain consistency. Larch gum (Larix occidentalis) a gum 🝉 excreted from the wood of a North American conifer. Guar gum (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) a seed gum, or the algal polymer constituents carrageenan and agar which are algae gums isolated from Rhodophyceae seaweeds are a few examples.
To recap we’ve discussed the combination of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which forms hydrophilic simple sugars like that of monosaccharides such as Ascorbic acid and Sorbitol, or the disaccharides and oligosaccharides and their use for energy production as well. In addition to more complex carbohydrates such as polysaccharides and how they form plant structures, including plant exudates that are gums.
Shikimic acid serves as a necessary biomolecule in the transformation of monosaccharides into the secondary metabolites that are “Aromatic” Amino Acids. Bacteria, algae, fungi and plants utilize this transformative pathway to synthesize, Aromatic Amino Acid metabolites (Herrmann, K. M., Weaver, L. M. 1999) such as Tyrosine, Tryptophan and Phenylalanine (Tzin, V., & Galili, G. 2010).
Aromatic amino acids absorb ultraviolet waves to synthesize florescence. Phenolic compounds such as flavonoids and curcuminoids synthesize their familiar pigments utilizing this shikimate route. A common precursor to numerous phenolic structures like that of tannins and lignins in addition to others is the utilization of shikimic acid in their formation (Habtemariam, S. 2019).
Shikimate Pathway
Amino acids in general are organic compounds that have functional amino (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups and contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) in addition to other elements which may very in differing plant species (Lopez MJ, Mohiuddin SS. (2022).
Glucosinolates
An interesting group of amino acid constituents would be the Glucosinolates. Glucosinolates are secondary metabolites owning a sulfur 🜍 element which is partially responsible for the characteristic pungent aroma of the Brassicaceae plant family. The pungency of the Glucosinolate gets released after structural damage occurs which aids in plant defense (Elpel, T. J. 2018). A commonly recognized glucosinolate derivative perhaps would be Isothiocyanate. This constituent is an important group of medicinal agents in Brassicas such as mustard, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, collards, horseradish and others.
Let’s illustrate this with Maca (Lepidium meyenii) which has many other constituents as well but one of the main active phytochemicals partially responsible for some of the medicinal actions of Maca is its glucosinolates. Maca has been utilized to balance endocrine, immune, and reproductive functioning in addition to others (HA n.d.).
Or take Moringa, which has often been implemented with those traversing cancer. The seed of Drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera) is a great example as it contains the glucosinolate derivative Glucomoringin. Glucomoringin potentially elicits chemoprotective properties amongst others. (Rajan, T. S., De Nicola, G. R. 2016).
Protein
When 2 or more amino acids link together they form a type of bond often referred to as a peptide (amide), this bond composes protein structures. The plant constituents that are proteins serve to support seed growth, form plant structures and other functions such as participating in photosynthesis, growth regulation and plant immunity for example (Rasheed, F., Markgren, J. 2020). Protein is soluble in water but denatures in ethanol.
When people hear about proteins, nutrition usually comes to mind and for good reason because when people consume the 9 essential (obtained through diet) amino acids a complete protein is formed. Proteins in both plants and people serve as important biomolecules composing cell membranes, maintaining fluidity and respiration, and modulating enzymatic activity (HA n.d.).
Proteins serve numerous bodily functions, from energy expenditure to gene expression (H.A. n.d.). The body requires 20 different amino acids to derive all of the protein structures of the body. By altering the amino acid chains, we can synthesize thousands of different structures and therefore are considered major building blocks (Harvard T.H. Chan 2020).
Gelatin
Gelatin is a type of protein produced in both plants and animals, generally recognized as a setting agent used to make the world famous Jell-O but other confections as well. Similax of the Greenbrier plant family produces gelatin, some Lichens as well also produce gelatin. Gelatin can be dried and powdered for topical application on minor abrasions to stop hemorrhaging (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Stevia
I’m sure most have heard of Stevia a zero-calorie sugar substitute. Well Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) is utilized for its protein, this protein is non-toxic, non-cariogenic, non-calorific and is over 150 times sweeter than sugar, hence its popularity. The primary sweetening agent is the glycoside Stevioside this secondary plant metabolite is extracted from the leaf of this plant (Vaghela, S., Soni, A. 2020).
Enzymes
Proteins whether in plants or otherwise participate in enzymatic activities. To simplify the understanding of biochemical enzymatic reaction it may be explained as proteins within a substrate that catalyze molecules may be considered as enzymes. In other words the constituent, in this case is the enzyme (protein) reacts to the substrate to initiate a response. (Cooper, G. M. 2000). Enzymes are often found in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and used by food enthusiasts.
A proteolytic (protein breakdown) enzyme commonly utilized by Herbalist would be Bromelain. Bromelain a constituent of pineapples (Ananas comosus) from the Bromeliaceae plant family, is heavily concentrated in the stem of the plant and the core of the ripe fruit. This enzyme when consumed supports digestion in its ability to breakdown foods. When consumed away from food aids in the breakdown of fibrin which forms as a result of inflammation thus reducing inflammation from the resulting improved flow of blood (HA n.d.).
Bromelain
Lipids 🝆
With that we now have approached the last primary plant metabolite that being lipids. Lipids otherwise referred to as fats or oils are constituents in cellular structures and energy reserves like that of phospholipids composing cell membranes or coating elements such as waxes. This class of compounds may encompass fatty acids, steroids and terpenes.
The chemical structures of lipids contain Carbon and Hydrogen. These structures are composed of long chains of carbon atoms surrounded by hydrogen atoms. As the hydrogen atoms occupy the carbon bonds, the degree of saturation increases. These varying ratios refer to Saturated and Unsaturated fats or lipids (Vitz E., Moore J.W., et al. 2020). For discussion let’s refer as oils being less saturated than fats. With saturated fats, every bond in the carbon chain has been occupied by hydrogen atoms and solidifies at room temperature. With unsaturated oils, which are more common in plants are typically liquid at room temperature. May be further subdivided in accordance with the varying ratios of carbon to hydrogen.
Lipophilic 🝆
When it comes to the solubility of lipids 🝆 we should consider the medium while “fats” or “oils” are lipophilic meaning these constituents are fat-soluble and best dissolved acidic medium such as oils, fats or ethanol. Recalling the discussion of solubility previously mentioned, un-ionized molecules like that of lipids are generally of an acidic 🜊 nature.
Important for a number of reasons let’s cover a couple, first in attempt to extract ♏︎ acidic natured elements from plants such as lipids. Would be best extracted using saturated fats or unsaturated oils. While herbal preparations are beyond the scope of plant constituents, saturated fats or oils may be use in an extraction process referred to as Cold Enfleurage. Additionally Phospholipids act as emulsifiers aiding in transdermal delivery when the solvent or medium has a saturated fat component (HA n.d.).
Lipids of plants such as Olive or Almond oils are primarily composed of triglyceride (glycerol & 3 fatty acids) constituents and are quite useful when it comes to extruding hydrophobic (inability to combine with water) constituents. These oils may be considered as carrier oils when utilized to extract lipophilic constituents. Numerous plant lipids are employed medicinally, for instance:
Oleic acid
Omega-9 fatty acid
Olive (Olea europaea) seed oil, is condensed with mono-unsaturated fatty acids containing amongst other constituents Vitamin E (Topocherol & Tocotrienol) making it useful as a lubricating and moistening agent, soothing mucosal tissue. Often employed in cooking and cosmetology.
Almond (Prunus dulcis) seed oil, has similar composition of olive oil having mono-unsaturated fatty acids, Topocherols, Tocotrienols and Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) with similar applications to olive oil, also often implemented in dermatology and cosmetology.
Castor (Ricinus communis) seed oil, I personally am quite fond of this plant as its medicinal properties are just as impressive as its appearance. Also high in triglycerides, particularly the unsaturated fatty element Ricinoleic Acid which is mainly responsible for the seeds medicinal effects. This herb is generally used as a topical agent to draw out and remove toxins and stagnation. Castor oil is classified as an antioxidant, antimicrobial, lymphatic, Immunostimulant and anti-inflammatory agent (HA n.d.).
Many familiar with “Jojoba oil” may be surprised to discover this oil is more of a wax, wax? Yup, waxes are fairly common amongst the plant kingdom, examples may include Carnauba (Copernicia prunifera) leaf wax, Or Candelilla wax from the Euphorbiaceae family.
Waxes 🝊
Waxes, Cutins and Suberin are big hydrophobic polymers generally located on plant surfaces. These extracellular lipids provide protection from heat, transpiration and infection. The white / blueish coating, a Epicuticular Wax (ECW) often admired on Xerophytes (plants with extreme adaptability) such as succulents, palms and other desert dwelling plants is another type of plant wax. Being incredibly hydrophobic plant waxes are best extracted in warm fats or oils.
Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) seed oil, a non-greasy combination of waxes is similar to the composition of sebum (human bodily oil). Thus making jojoba oil humectant, noncomedogenic, hypoallergenic, antimicrobial and antioxidant as it also contains Topocherol & Tocotrienol. Thus explaining its common reoccurrence in dermatology (HA n.d.).
Energetic Consideration
When considering traditional modalities such as Āyurveda (Indian), Physick (Greek) or Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). It is useful to think of plants as having a type of quality or energy that resides within them. This quality or energetic influence affects the overall quality or energetic state of the body it has been introduced to. This same influence also places a sort of match or affinity for a particular organ or its system.
The same may also be said of the individual constituents when isolated from the others. No matter it be primary or secondary metabolites or their derivatives. This energetic influence of each individual constituent will be different than the quality or energy of the entire plant before isolation. Which further contributes to the explanation of the entourage effect.
To extrapolate, the energetic influence of carbohydrates is warm to cold but always moistening. Differing from that of protein which is generally more heating and less moistening. While the same goes for lipids and their different qualities from either carbohydrates or proteins. As such the energy of lipids may not be as heating as protein but is typically warmer than carbohydrates and more moistening than protein but generally not as moistening (to a particular quality) as carbohydrates. Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids all fall under the sweet category. The sweetness of these metabolites typically signifies nutrition and encourages consumption.
The world of primary plant metabolites is complex and extensive, as we are starting to discover. We Discovered many basic elements such as the carbohydrates from simple to complex sugars, amino acids and their composition of protein structures including plant lipids. Which are essential to the formation and function of plants whether it be growth, metabolism or reproduction. Now that you have a basic understanding of such, lets bring to the table so-to-speak plants secondary metabolites.
🜁 🜃 🜂 🜄 Plant Constituents; Secondary Metabolites
Secondary metabolites are not essential in plant growth, development and reproduction but are typically a formation of altered and broken down primary metabolites creating constituents such as Glycosides, Phenols, ☿ Flavonoids and Terpenoids. These secondary metabolites support plants in array of functions including plant defense, communication, and other survival mechanisms. Generally forming the distinctive colors, aromas, flavors and/or activities of plants.
Secondary Metabolites
The secondary plant metabolites that are Glycosides may be thought of as a form of storage where plants bond inactive molecules to sugars for use when called into action. More precisely a glycoside is a sugar molecule which we just discovered is carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (CH2O) bound to a non-sugar (aglycone) molecule in turn creating different forms of secondary metabolites (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Glycosides
Before being called into action glycosides are typically inert and in order to become active, a glycoside must go through a process referred to as Hydrolysis (splitting of water). Hydrolysis is the enzymatic reaction of the sugar within a glycoside being dissolved in a solution (Osborne. 2021).
So if condensation or formation is a process of hydrogen bonding of one monosaccharide to another monosaccharide releasing the water element thus creating a new bond termed a glycosidic bond as previously mention then hydrolysis is the breakdown of the glycosidic bond thus releasing the inactive, stored molecule or secondary metabolite (Osborne. 2021).
Anthraquinone
Anthraquinone Glycoside constituents may be considered as a type of phenolic compound that dwells amongst unrelated plants such as Senna, Cassia, Aloe, Buckthorn and Rheum. With Cassia (Senna alexandria) leaf or pod and Aloe (Aloe vera) leaf, the anthraquinone constituents are strong purgatives and quite stimulating. Its mechanism is often explained as causing the colon to shed part of its mucosa. Whereas Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) fruit and Turkey rhubarb (Rheum palmatum) root, also strong laxatives are not as stimulating and in turn a bit gentler than the former. This stimulating action accompanies a sort of gripping and with continual use people may become dependent on them as without the stimulus the intrinsic peristalsis is weakened (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Cyanide
Cyanide glycosides are diverse and may be classified as Prussic acid, Hydrocyanic acid, Cyanogen or Cyanphore. This group of constituents are relatively common in the plant kingdom and contain nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. To illustrate this, Cyanide glycosides may be found in the Rosaceae, Caprifoliaceae and Linaceae plant families. Let’s use the Prunus genus of the Rosaceae plant family for discussion. Most seeds of stone fruits contain negligible amounts of the cyanogenic glycoside derived Amygdalin and when Amygdalin is broken down in the body it forms Benzaldehyde and Cyanide. Amygdalin or Laetrile is a controversial anticarcinogenic agent as excessive consumption may cause the cells within the body to asphyxiate since the cyanide inhibits the enzyme cytochrome (a heme protein) oxidase from binding oxygen to our cells. Thus explaining why some Rosaceae plants like that of Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina) inner bark is classified as a sedative amongst others. Boiling water (heat) tends to nullify this outcome making it safe for consumption. The body typically copes with minute amounts of cyanide by adding a sulfur molecule to compose a sulfuric glycoside called Thiocyanate. When in excess though thiocyanate interferes with iodide metabolism in turn reducing thyroid hormone synthesis therefore may exacerbate existing thyroid disorders (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Traditionally Peach Kernels are steamed as part of the medicinal preparation in accordance with TCM.
Sulfuric 🜍 Glycosides
Speaking of goiters, Sulfuric 🜍 glycosides such as the previously mentioned Glucosinolates from the amino acid section which carries a sulfur 🜍 component. Or the just mentioned Thiocyanate a cyanide derivative, both may be considered as sulfuric glycosides that contain nitrogen along with sulfur. These constituents and other sulfuric glycosides are heavily concentrated in the Brassicaceae, Capparaceae, Resedaceae, and Amaryllidaceae plant families. Secondary metabolites such as volatile ☿ oils which own a sulfur 🜍 element like that of onion or garlic are partially responsible for the characteristic pungent odor and are quite irritating (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
If we recall excessive consumption thiocyanate including glucosinolates as well as other sulfuric glycosides may interfere with thyroid hormone synthesis but in moderation actually supports thyroid function (Elpel, T. J. 2018) along with digestion and circulation, key word here “moderation”.
Cardiac Glycoside
Another group of glycosides would be the Cardiac glycosides (Cardenolides and Bufadienolides), these constituents are known for their action upon the heart. Traditional use is in cases of cardiac insufficiency whereby these constituents increase cardiac output thus alter contractions of the heart. Cardiac glycosides are abundantly found in the leaves, flowers and seeds of the Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) plant (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Particularly the cardiac glycoside constituent Digitoxin which is commonly found in prescription drugs for people with certain types of heart failure and kidney impairment (D.O. 2021).
Additional examples might be Lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis) this whole plant contains a type of cardiac glycoside constituent Convallatoxin. Within the flower petals of Pheasant’s eye (Adonis annua) is Astaxanthin another type of cardiac glycoside. The Oleander (Nerium oleander) plant also contains cardiac glycoside constituents such as Oleandrin and Oleandrigenin. These plants amongst others that contain cardiac glycosides carry a steroid component attached to the sugar molecules.
The safety of these plant structures are not without mention as cardiac glycosides are known toxins due to the affects on the sodium-potassium ATPase (enzyme) (Agrawal, A. A., Petschenka, G 2012) in cells of the cardiovascular, neurological, and gastrointestinal systems wherein they alter the membrane potential creating altered rhythms of contraction (Constable, P. D., Hinchcliff, K. W., et al. 2017).
Steroidal compounds
Many glycosides carry a steroid component whether it be Phyto-sterols and their saturated derivatives the Phyto-stanols (collectively termed “Phytosterols”) or the steroidal saponins in addition to others. Plant steroids (triterpenes) are ubiquitous throughout the entire plant kingdom and are found in cell membranes of plants. These plant lipids are considered to be hormonal messengers (Bot, A. 2019) activating plant growth, development and defense.
Such hormonal messengers are akin to our hormonal makeup, oftentimes considered to be hormonal precursors in people (HA n.d.). Additionally phytosterols may be likened to human cholesterol and in being so, in a sense sequesters cholesterol absorption. About 50% of dietary cholesterol gets absorbed while only 5% of phytosterols gets absorbed (Higdon, J., et al. 2022). Though common amongst the plant kingdom residing in vegetables, fruits (seeds or otherwise), grains, and herbs, heavier concentrations may be found in legumes such as Soybean (Glycine max) fruit, or Pea (Pisum sativum) fruits for example.
Let’s take Ashwaganda (Withania somnifera) root, as it contains the steroidal lactone Withanolide, also found in other plants is at the core of its affects. W. somnifera exhibits in relation to the steroidal lactones adaptogenic, aphrodisiac, anxiolytic and diuretic properties (HA n.d.). Other commonly reoccurring phyto-sterols (unsaturated forms), typically found in our diets might be Sitosterol, Stigmasterol and Campesterol. While Sitostanol and Campestanol are the typically rencountered phyto-stanols (saturated forms) (Higdon, J., et al. 2022). Plants with steroidal aglycon molecules may protect against cancer, support prostate function and heart health as phytosterols inhibit cholesterol absorption in turn reducing low density lipoproteins (LDL) (HA n.d.).
Synergist
Saponins are broadly classified as the previously mentioned steroidal aglycons but triterpenoids as well. This type of constituent is a glycoside poison that has low intestinal bioavailability and stimulates digestion, acting as cleaning agents of the intestinal lumen, aiding in calcium and silicone absorption (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Saponins also act as synergist which aid in delivery and assimilation of other plant constituents. Additionally saponins potentially exert antimicrobial, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-tumor, immune stimulating and cholesterol lowering affects, while in large amounts are said to be effective emetics (HA n.d.). These compounds are of great diversity, broadly distributed amongst the plant kingdom but many are heavily condensed, the Sapindus genus of Sapindaceae plant family, Saponaria genus of the Caryophyllaceae family, Yucca genus of the Asparagaceae family, Symphoricarpos of Caprifoliaceae and Ceanothus of Rhamnaceae for example are amongst the plants with higher concentrations (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Saponin containing plants are able to be mashed and worked into a soapy lather that is a rather effective cleansing agent.
Steroidal Saponins
Some saponins elicit phyto-estrogenic activity, these steroidal saponins are structurally akin to our hormonal makeup and potentially interact with androgen, estrogen or oxytocin receptors of the body such as shatavari (Asparagus racemosus) (HA n.d.). These steroidal saponins are primarily found in angiosperms of monocotyledonous plants like that of Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) seed, or Wild Yam (Dioscorea villosa) tuber.
Lock & Key
Consider certain molecules to act like keys that bind aka fill locks otherwise known as receptors, may be referred to as ligands. Another way to look at this might be to consider Agonists as keys that fill aka bind and activate or open receptors (the lock), whereas Antagonist bind aka fill and occupy without activating aka jamming the lock. On a side note, enzymatic reaction may also be considered in the lock and key hypothesis as enzymes behave similarly in a substrate.
Lets take Caltrop as an example (Tribulus terrestris) arial parts, the seed in particular contains the steroidal saponin Protodioscin which resembles androgens and effectively binds with testosterone receptors in turn increases testosterone/epitestosterone levels. In relation to the saponins, Tribulus exerts alterative, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, galactagogue, hypolipidemic and diuretic properties (HA n.d.).
Phytoestrogens
Another type of plant constituent, the phytoestrogens. These non-steroidal compounds exert both estrogen-agonist (activator) and estrogen-antagonist (blocker) reactions. Supporting the endocrine, cardiovascular and nervous systems, beneficial to those with certain types of neuroendocrine imbalances or those experiencing menopausal transition in addition to others. These secondary metabolites of the phenol group partially compose lignans and isoflavonoids. For this group of constituents it may be best to discuss herbs with phyto-estrogenic activity as the compounds are not well understood or easily defined.
Lignan from the latin word “wood”, are phenolic compounds that aid in plant defense and structural integrity. Lignan derivatives such as Secoisolariciresinol, Matairesinol, Pinoresinol and Lariciresinol are amongst the more commonly encountered constituents. When it comes to the hormonal aspects of lignans, they exert antagonistic (agonists & antagonist) reactions within our bodies. This is largely dependent of the microbiome or gut flora of the intestinal lumen. While lignans are common amongst the plant kingdom, heavily concentrated in seeds and grains (Higdon, J., et al. 2022). Lignans are also found in many herbs as well, take for example Red clover (Trifolium prantense) arial parts and Oats (Avena sativa) seed both contain this type of constituent. Milk thistle (Silybum marinum) seed contains the lingnan derivative Silymarin which is known to support liver function as a hepatoprotectant. Additionally the lignans of Flax (Linum usitatissum) seeds have been shown to elicit a reduction in oxidative stress, high blood pressure, inflammation and even hormone related cancers thus supports heart health, blood lipids and sugar concentrations including longevity (HA n.d.).
Isoflavonoids
This group of constituents are of the phenolic flavonoid derived compounds that exert estrogen antagonistic reactions. Some examples of isoflavonoid glycosides may include Daidzin, Genistin, Glycitin and their aglycones Daidzein, Genistein, Glycitein (Mizushina, Y. et al. 2013). The majority of isoflavonoid research is from the commonly covered Soybean (Glycine max) which reveals fruits of this plant contains Diadzein, Genistein (including Glycitein) and exerts both estrogen-agonist and estrogen-antagonist activity. The outcome is said to elicit antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity aiding in cancer prevention whether it be breast or prostate, in addition to the activities previously mentioned in the phytoestrogen section (Yu, J., et al. 2016).
Now that we’ve gathered some secondary metabolites and brought understanding to the complexity of plant structures. Like that of the glycosides and how they store constituents for later use. Including the phytoestrogens and steroidal compounds of plants and their potential activities. Let’s prepare a thicker comprehension of secondary metabolites, starting with phenolic constituents such as tannins and other organic acids.
Phenols
Organic compounds with glycosidic bonds containing a hydroxyl (oxygen bound to hydrogen) group attached to a aromatic hydrocarbon derivative of benzene (a 6 membered ring of hydrogen containing 3 double bonds of carbon) may be considered to be a Phenol (Carbolic acid or hydroxybenzene) (Boudreaux, K. A. 2021).
We can take the prospective in the breakdown of some phenols like that of Sour cherry (Prunus cerasus) fruit, Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) fruit or Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) leaf/fruit for example. Wherein the alkaline environment of the urinary 🝕 tract where hydrolysis (the enzymatic reduction of sugar) separates the aglycon from the glycosidic bond releasing the active phenol, elicits a strong disinfecting agent that has been effective in urinary 🝕 tract infections (UTIs) and inflammation (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Phenols are vastly diverse and identified by the parent carbolic component. Case in point the anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, lignans, saponins and isoflavonids briefly mentioned are structurally diverse phenolic derivatives. Including the tannins, flavonoids and curcuminoids which will be briefly discussed momentarily are also grouped as phenolic compounds (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
The diversity of phenols makes it difficult to generalize statements of the medicinal effects, although often considered in heart and blood support. Lets think of phenolic structures as toning to the cardiovascular system, often recognized as antioxidants, antimicrobials and anti-inflammatories. Typically phenolic compounds are excreted rather quickly via the liver (a blood organ) otherwise bioavailability occurs within the colon (HA n.d).
Polyphenols and other Phenolic compounds are common amongst vegetables and fruits, including legumes such as garbanzo or soy and red wine. Simple phenols are typically found in the Salicaceae, Betulaceae and Ericaceae plant families (Elpel, T. J. 2018). let’s go with the Salicylates: Salicin and Salicortin constituents of White Willow (Salix alba) bark, ultimately deriving Salicylic acid for explanation. Salicin potentially affects thermal regulation of the peripheral vasculature which aids in the reduction pain and inflammation in situations of rheumatism and the alike, Salicin may be considered as a simple phenol (Delgoda, R. 2016).
Proanthocyanidins
This group of polyphenol constituents up for discussion is the Proanthocyanidins (Oligomeric Proanthocyanidins (OPC) and Polymers of Flavon-3-ols). These small molecules are considered to be a group of condensed tannins, that in addition to other functions participates in chemical messaging and plant defense. The colorless precursors of various plant pigments affiliated with grapes, Hawthorne berries, elderberries, and cocoa for example. These compounds are water soluble and show poor bioavailability, while that which is potentially available is dependent on the microbiome of the intestinal lumen (HA n.d.). Proanthocyanidins are studied for their potential antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anticarcinogenic activities in addition to supporting immunity, vision, mobility and blood circulation amongst others (Rauf, A., Imran, M., et al. 2019).
Tannins
The group of Polyphenol constituents referred to as “Tannins” is a sort of umbrella term classifying most sets of astringent compounds. Which reforms bonds between large molecules such as pectins, lignans, waxes, resins and most alkaloids for example. Tannins act as magnets so-to-speak, meaning they form linkages by drawing in complex molecules and precipitate them out of a solution. Plants utilize tannins in potential growth regulation and participation in protection. As tannins not only create structural resistance that are bacteriostatic but are also quite bitter at times (HA n.d.). Heavily concentrated in dead and/or dying plants cells, as in the case of plant galls. Larger molecules such as tannic acids are typically not water soluble. Considering these compounds precipitate large molecules out of a solution. They may be thought of as antidotes in cases of alkaloid or heavy metal poisoning.
The term tannin arises from the use of Tannic acid from Oak Bark of the Quercus genus in the Fagaceae family, in which leather is made resistant to the elements. Whereby the collagen fibers are drawn together forming a stronger bond by altering the nature of the hide in turn making the leather water and heat resistant protecting against degradation (HA n.d.).
🜊 Astringent
Tannic acid is the most commonly associated astringent (binding of tissues), tannic acid is abundantly found not only in different species of Quercus but Acacia, Castanea, Rhus, including others as well. While tannic acid is commonly associated with astringency, other acids 🜊 like Malic, Gallic and Tartaric 🝀 acids which bind or constrict tissues together may also be classified as astringents as well (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Acids 🜊 whether they be tannic or otherwise, exert a tightening sort of sensation upon the mouth. As astringent acids 🜊 draw out or precipitate glycoproteins from the saliva almost removing any lubricating slipperiness, like when drinking a “dry” wine. Within this same response of astringency, internally the effects of drying, shrinking or binding are of medicinal application in situations of inflammation, dysentery, ulceration, or in general with loose lax tissues of the body. The same goes for external application for astringents have the ability to be medicinally utilized as styptics to support cuts, blisters, pimples, sunburns, most irruption’s of the skin, etc. as well.
🜊 Organic acids
Phenolic acids like that of Citric, Gallic, Malic, Tartaric 🝀 etc. have a marked astringency and are quite sour. This astringency is drying although these organic acids 🜊 do not carry the dryness of true “Tannins” such as tannic acid. Instead the astringency or binding accompanies a sensation of fluid excretion upon the mouth and saliva production, which is almost moistening in relation to the sourness (Dharmananda S. 2010). These secretions continue throughout the body, particularly the digestive track. Organic acids 🜊 like these get absorbed relatively slowly and as a result act as stool softeners. These constituents are commonly associated with fresh fruits of the Vitaceae, Rosaceae plant families and particularly the Rutaceae family. Depending on the culture, organic acids 🜊 have been traditionally viewed as drying and/or moistening.
Clearly we’ve prepared a thicker comprehension of phenolic constituents. Although not all phenols have such a tight grasp (wink wink) more specifically flavonoids, our next group of phenolic compounds (often astringent at least to some extent) are generally associated with the colors of flowers and the seasonal transition of plants.
Flavonoids
This group of phenolic compounds, like the others are secondary metabolites in a glycosidic bond to different aglycon with a bunch of carbon and a number of benzene rings (in addition to free forms as well). We will get the this “benzene ring” in due time but first. Flavonoids (C6 C3 C6) participate in many roles for example, plant reproduction, disease prevention, growth regulation, chemical messaging, etc. There are roughly 6000 known and studied plant flavonoids and depending on the molecules that make up the compounds, flavonoids may be subcategorized according to their structures (Mathesius U. 2018) for example Anthocyanins and Betalains (a flavonoid intermediate). Chalcones and Aurones in addition to the Anthoxanthins: ketone containing flavonoids Flavones and Flavonols.
Flavonoids are just about universal amongst the plant kingdom and are heavily concentrated amongst fruits especially in berries. These constituents are responsible for plant pigments, from light white to dark blue, like that of fruits but flowers and leaves too. Ever present in most leaves, the colors of fall but hidden behind the chlorophyll.
While Further donating to the diversity of phenolic structures, flavonoids are often considered in heart and blood support. Let’s use a simple analogy of the color of berries, particularly darker pigments to the vitality of the blood (and the vasculature that contains it). In other words, hues of berries to the hues of blood. That which resembles the blood most likely supports it, which relates to the “Doctrine of Signatures”.
With the diversity of flavonoids (Vitamin P) also resides a diversity of medicinal properties, generally speaking, flavonoids may exert astringent, antimicrobial, antioxidant, diuretic, alterative, nutritive, hemostatic, and anti-inflammatory activities. With assimilation primarily dependent on the microbiome of the small intestine and particularly the colon. The bioavailability of flavonoids being low, anthocyanins middling and not so great, while isoflavonoids tend to have the highest bioavailability (HA n.d.). Flavonoids tend to be water and ethanol soluble.
Anthocyanins
This group of somewhat astringent, water 🜄 soluble, polyphenol flavonoids are responsible for the pigments ranging from pink to red including purple and violet too, all the way to blue and even black. Common derivatives of anthocyanin may include Cyanidin (red to reddish purple), Delphinidin (reddish purple to blue), Pelargonidin (orange to red) and their metabolites (Khoo, H. E., Azlan, A., et al. 2017) Proanthocyanide (red to black), Peonidin (purplish blue), Malvidin (reddish), and Petunidin (dark reds to purples).
Dependent on the pH, as shades of red often indicate more acids, whereas shades of blue indicate more alkaline and often utilized as pH indicators. This class of constituents are referred to as Anthocyanins and reside in most tissues of the plant for example roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits (Khoo, H. E., Azlan, A., et al. 2017). Plants that produce anthocyanins utilize these secondary metabolites for a multitude of reasons, particularly pollination and seed distribution. Most are familiar with the antioxidants aka the bioflavonoids of blueberries, cherries, raspberries, or the purple of eggplant or potatoes, perhaps even purple cabbage in which the anthyocyanins are responsible. The anthocyanin constituents of Bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) leaf/fruits, or Blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) fruits (Khoo, H. E., Azlan, A., et al. 2017), as well as Mulberry (Morus alba) fruits, are often employed medicinally in conjunction with the other constituents that reside in these plants.
The medicinal effects of Anthocyanin constituents are shown to support ocular function by promoting vascular health in addition to the potential antioxidant, nuero-protective anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anticarcinogenic activity (Khoo, H. E., Azlan, A., et al. 2017). In correlation with supporting vascular health, anthocyanin constituents also exert antiedema activity, most likely in relation with the astringent and diuretic properties. Anthocyanins are water 🜄 soluble and permeates the stomach (HA n.d.).
Much of what is said of anthocyanins can be said of Betalain. This group of compounds while very similar to the former is present in different plants than those that produce anthocyanins. When it comes to betalain, the pigments are derived from the amino acid Tyrosine and contain nitrogen. The betalain derivatives Betacyanins are associated with reddish purple hues, whereas the Betaxanthins are responsible for various hues of yellow to orange. These alkaloid like constituents reside in a multitude of plants, for example many desert dwelling plants of the Cactaceae family carry this type of constituent, additionally many members of the Amaranthacea family also contain betalain (Sadowska-Bartosz, I., Bartosz, G. 2021).
Betalain
Let’s go with Sugar beet for discussion, Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) root, a member of the Amaranth family which contains betalain derivatives. Due to the nitrogen content, Sugar beet succus (expressed plant juice or Glycine Betalain) has a significant amount of Nitrates (NO3) a component believed to be responsible for the antioxidant and vasodilation aspects of betalain (Chiu, H.F., Wang, C.K. 2020). Additionally beets are known for their high fiber such as the cellulose and lignans, low caloric glucose and fructose, including their nutrient content such as the folates and carotenoids. Collectively, along with the unmentioned constituents, which work together to ensure survival of the plant, also supports us in a myriad of ways. Although we have stepped away from the synergism of the plants we should still have it in mind. As you may have noticed plant constituents usually overlap and work together, such as with the Sugar beet as just mentioned.
Chalcones
The polyphenolic constituent Chalcones are precursors to different types of flavonoid compounds like that of Phloretin, Arbutin, Phlioridzin and Chalco naringenin for example (Torawane, S. D., Mokat, D. N. 2020). Classified as a type of simple flavonoid containing a ketone element (Zhuang, C., Zhang, W. 2017). Chalcones are associated with a range of hydrophobic pigments particularly the bronze and yellow colors residing in many plants. Like those of the Asteraceae and Fabaceae plant families not to mention others. These naturally occurring secondary plant metabolites are present in many fruits and vegetables.
Chalcones are being studied for their medicinal effects upon our cells, most commonly in cancer research for its potential antimitotic and antioxidative effects. In addition to these cytoprotective and modulatory outcomes, chalcones depending on their composition also elicit glycemic homeostatic, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial actions. For example, Xanthohumol a chalcone from the lupulin glands of Hops (Humulus lupulus) is under investigation for the potential protection against bacterial infection, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV-1) and cancer preventative properties (Zhuang, C., Zhang, W. 2017). The medicinal outcomes of chalcone are currently and primarily of in-vitro and in-vivo studies as excretion is rapid and bioavailability is relatively low.
Aurones
This derivative of chalcones also containing a ketone core and expressing the brightest of yellow hues would be the Aurones. There are over 100 different identified aurones and these water 🜄 soluble secondary polyphenol pigments reside in the stems, leaves, petals and seeds of a mixed diversity of plants. Dwelling amongst the Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Plantaginaceae, Rosaceae and Cactaceae families in addition to others. Aurone constituents are recently gaining popularity for their potential antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, anti-malarial and anticarcinogenic properties (Mazziotti, I., Petrarolo, G., La Motta, C. 2021).
Flavones
Also a chalcone derivative this ketone containing group of polyphenol flavonoids are classified as Flavones. Flavones are somewhat water soluble with greater solubility arising in more acidic 🜊 solutions like that of acetic acid or alcohol. These constituents are responsible for hues ranging from colorless to yellow including white. Primarily found in herbaceous plants, to a lesser extent grains and occasionally in yellow to orange fruits. For example Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis) flower, Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) arial parts, Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria biacalensis) root, Celery (Apium graveolens) leaves and stalk, Artichoke (Cynara scolymus) Leaf/fruit and Mandarin (Citrus reticulata) rind, all contain flavone derivatives. Flavones aid plants by acting as copigments and chemical messengers, aiding in nitrogen fixation and growth stimulation, including UV protection and protection from fungal infection and insect infestation (Hostetler, G. L., Ralston, R. A., Schwartz, S. J. 2017). The commonly recognized flavone derivatives would be Apigenin, luteolin, Baicalein, Tangeretin, Sinensetin, Galangin, Chrysin and Ropifolin (Torawane, S. D., Mokat, D. N. 2020) in addition to others. These derivatives amongst others are being studied for their potential antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antimitotic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities (Jiang, N., Doseff, A. I. Grotewold, E. 2016).
Flavonols
This group of ketone containing constituents is very similar to the former with differentiation of flavones residing in the hydroxyl (-OH, oxygen covalently bound to hydrogen) component. For the most part what is said of flavones can be said of flavonols, from plant types (herbs, grains, fruits) and location (arial parts) (Brahmachari, G., Gorai, D. 2006) as flavonols and flavones support growth development, reproduction and UV protection as well, to the solubility and even the various shades of yellow and white. Examples of commonly studied would be Fisetin, Kaempferol, Morin, Myricetin, Rutin, and Quercetin (Panche, A. N 2016) in addition to others. These secondary metabolites are found in plants such as Drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera) leaf / flower, Onion (Allium cepa) bulb, or Grapes (Vitis vinifera) fruit, Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) leaf, Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) head, including Strawberries and Blueberries for example (Zuiter, A. S. 2014). Like flavones, flavonols are studied for their potential antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects amongst other influences exerted upon our physiology (Brahmachari, G., Gorai, D. 2006).
Stilbenoids
Stilbenoids are another group of phenolic constituents owning a tyrosine component. Stilbenoids are colorless compounds that share a similar composition route to that of previously discussed chalcones. Stilbene derivatives we might encounter would be Piceatannol, Petrostilbene, Resveratrol and Gnetol (Akinwumi, B. C., Bordun, K. M., Anderson, H. D. 2018). A stilbenoid of particular interest, Resveratrol which is heavily condensed in a number Polygonaceae residents such as Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia japonica) stem, and He Shou Wu (Polygonum multiflorum) root, including members of the Ericaceae family as well, like that of Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) fruit, and Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) fruit for example (Duke, J. 1992). Plants utilize these lipophilic metabolites in response to stress, ultraviolet exposure, injury or pathogenic infection. While the medicinal influences one may encounter would include antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiedemic, anticarcinogenic and hepaprotective activities (Duke, J. 1992). As mentioned previously cranberry and blueberry contain stilbenoids, we may also include grapes, strawberries, mulberry, pistachios and even cacao (dark chocolate) for example.
Curcuminoids
This group of constituents are lipophilic diketones (2 ketones, 1 carbon), a shikimate derivative classified as Curcuminoids (Pastor-Villaescusa, B., Rangel-Huerta, O. D. 2018). In the grand scheme of constituents, Curcuminoids are a particularly small group of polyphenolic compounds. These compounds are relatively hydrophobic hues of yellow to orange, with poor bioavailability. Generally speaking curcuminoids potentially exert antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, hepaprotectant, neuroprotective, and hypoglycemic activities (Pastor-Villaescusa, B., Rangel-Huerta, O. D. 2018).
Primarily the research on curcuminoids is around Curcumin a constituent of Turmeric (Curcuma longa) rhizome. Curcumin is often encountered on food labels as a color additive. The secondary metabolite curcumin may also exert antibacterial, anodyne, antiarthritic, and choleretic potentials in addition to the previously mentioned activities (HA n.d.). While the color of Turmeric is attributed to the constituent curcumin, the color of carrots arises from a class of constituents referred to as carotenoids.
Carotenoids
While hues of red to purple of flowers, fruits and stems too, are typically associated with anthocyanins. Many deciduous plants that reveal the colors associated with autumn, is due to the presence of carotenoids, from light yellow including orange to deep red. Not so much a flavonoid, instead resides in the tetrater-terpenoid (soon to be discussed) group of constituents, more specifically a linear chain, contain 4 terpene groups with 10 carbon atoms per group (Sun T., et al. 2022).
While carotenoids may be sourced from roots, flowers, fruits and seeds, they are also produced by some bacteria, algae and fungi as well. Interestingly enough many carotenoids are associated with symbiosis of bacteria in higher plants. Often plants utilize these structures for pigmentation, photosynthesis, UV protection and chemical messaging (Sun, T., et al. 2022). The carotenoid derivatives such as Xanthophylls (typically yellow) are the oxygen containing carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin. Which have been shown to support ocular health in a range of degenerative eye disorders such as Cataracts and Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD). The unsaturated hydrocarbons which do not contain oxygen would be alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, collectively referred to as carotenes (Abdel-Aal, E.-S. M., Young, C. J. 2009). Beta-carotene (red-orange pigments) or provitamin A is a precursor of retinol or retinoic acid (biologically active vitamin A). Sometimes a simple analogy of “retinol” to “retina” is used to remember the beneficial activities upon ocular health (particularly hyperopia & scotopic). Additionally carotenoids potentially exert antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and cardioprotective activities upon the body which are among other beneficial outcomes not mentioned. In relation to the terpene structure, bioaccessibility of carotenoids is dependent on the solubility, which arises in conjunction of lipophilic mediums such as fats and lipids. Common food containing carotenoids might include orange, tangerine, cantaloupe, red pepper and tomatoes, avocado, squash, spinach and kale in addition to many others (Higdon, J., et al. 2019).
After briefly discussing the phenolic constituents classification of pigments and properties of different flavonoids and the alike. Perhaps we’re considering a nice colorful meal to exercise our new found knowledge of plants on. In addition to the properties and classification of plant pigments, let’s consider the traditional views of the constituents as well.
The phenolic compounds that largely contribute to the pigments of plants like that of the Anthocyanins that produce hues ranging from pink to red including purple and violet too, all the way to blue and even black. Or the Betalains responsible for yellow to red pigments of many desert dwellers. In addition to the bronze to yellow colors that is Chalcones. Including Aurones which express the brightest of yellows. As well as the Anthoxanthins (Flavones and Flavonols) white to yellow and the orange of curcuminoids. May have been utilized in tattooing and perhaps in the production of ancient artifacts. Serving as useful colorants since antiquity in the dyeing of fabrics like that of jute, cotton, wool, even fine silks.
Energetics
The energetic view of phenolic constituents have a cooler, dryer, heavier quintessential influence about them. Unlike the following group of terpenoid constituents the “Aromatic” compounds which tend to have a warming dispersing lightness that resides within them. Especially when consumed in a warm state. The warmth aids in dispersion contributing to the raising energy.
Aromatics
The colorless aromatic hydrocarbon, Benzoic acid was first identified From Gum Benzoin around the sixteenth century. A aromatic resinous exudate excreted from a number of Styrax trees of the Styracaceae family of plants gave way to the classification of Benzene (A.C.S. 2020). Classified as hydrocarbons containing 6 carbon molecules joined by 1 hydrogen molecule each, in a cyclic bond forming a ring to compose a “Aromatic” hydrocarbon (Pubchem 2022). This low carbon to hydrogen ratio is remarkably volatile and is typically associated with a pleasantly sweet aroma.
Benzene
Whether there be an aroma or not, “Volatile oils” now a catch-all term for compounds containing a benzene ring aka a low hydrogen to carbon structure. These structures can be differentiated by the amount of rings and accompanied molecules in the compound. Plants containing just a few aromatic components may be classified to one subgroup, while plants containing hundreds of aromatic components may be subdivided into multiple groups.
Terpenoids
This group of constituents are the aromatic compounds responsible for the tastes and aromas of plants. Arising in both a primary and secondary nature, those terpenoids that are present in just about all plants would be primary. Whereas those of a secondary nature (not present in all plants) may be referred to as “Specialized Terpenoids”. Terpenoids an all encompassing term referencing not only terpenes but also components of terpene moieties and their associated derivatives. The designation “terpene” was ultimately derived from Terebinth aka the Turpentine Tree (Pistachia terebinthus) whose resin are rich in terpenes.
2-Methylbuta-1,3-diene (Isoprene)
The diversity of Terpenoid structures is vast and classification occurs in accordance with the amount and type of molecules composing the Terpenoid structures. One common occurrence, fundamental to all Terpenoids is the “Isoprene rule” in which there are 5 carbon atoms for every Isoprene (unsaturated hydrocarbon) unit (Pichersky, E., Raguso, R. A. 2016). Case in point, Mono-terpenes (C10 H16), Sesqui-terpenes (C15 H24), Di-terpenes (C20 H32), Tri-terpenes (C25 H48). While plants containing many, upwards of 30 to 40+ (tetraterpenes and carotenoids) carbon atoms would be steroid and hormonal precursors.
Subdivision of the different terpenoid structures is in relation to the chemical composition of the individual aromatic components. Which is generally associated with the type of plants they occur in. To exemplify this, Mint plants (Mentha spp.) contain Menthol, Pine trees (Pinus spp.) containing Pinene and Limes (Citrus spp.) containing Limonene, so on and so on (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Typically the -ene suffix indicates the classification of a terpene structure. These constituents participate in plant growth, development, pollination and defense in addition to others (HA n.d.). Terpenoid compounds are the largest group of secondary metabolites known and studied, recognized for their therapeutic qualities.
EOS
Terpenoid structures are soluble in lipids, fats and ethanol, while being slightly soluble in water, with the greatest solubility arising in high percentage hydroethanolic solvents. Small terpene structures such as monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes have the ability to be extracted through steam distillation. The end product of which is the commonly recognized “Essential Oils”. No matter the delivery (pulmonary, oral or transdermal) route, volatile oils are rapidly absorbed and excreted, with excretion primarily taking place via the renal and respiratory routes. Generally, terpenes are thought to possess anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, antiparasitic and antioxidant activity (HA n.d.).
Spices
The volatile oil rich plants that are simple Monoterpenes (C10 H16) and Sesquiterpenes (C15 H24) are generally associated with the “Spices” utilized in the culinary arts for their aromatic and stomachic qualities. Common in Mexican cuisine as the sudorific action that stimulates sweating is utilized as a febrifuge to cool the body from the hot environment of Mexico. This same stimulating action is often employed medicinally to support digestion, blood circulation and even subdue the common cold when used at the onset and to break a fever that may accompany it. Generally speaking we can say volatile oil rich plants are often stimulating, diaphoretic, sudorific, expectorant, carminative, diuretic, stomachic, antispasmodic and antimicrobial (HA n.d.).
As the diversity is complex and the accompanying effects extensive, only a small number of examples will be presented. Eucalyptol of (Eucalyptus globulus) is expectorant, Cinnamaldehyde of (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is anti-inflammatory, or take Linalool of (Lavandula angustifolia) is a sedative or Myrcene of (Humulus lupulus) is analgesic. Menthol is diaphoretic, Pinene a known bronchial dilator, Limonene an antidepressant (HA n.d.).
Alcohol aromatic polymers like that of Menthol may be considered a non-toxic stimulant. Aldehyde aromatic compounds such as Citronella is typically considered antiseptic and sedative. Sulfuric aromatic chains like that which resides in Brassica and Allium plants are often acrid (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Ketone aromatic components such as Thujone is a Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) competitive antagonist (Höld, K. M., Sirisoma, N. S., et al. 2000).
Resins
Oftentimes plants secrete terpenes to produce an exudate referred to as “Pitch”. These plant resins are potent oxidized aromatic oils that get secreted from intracellular canals, referred to as “Resin Passages”. Primarily associated with gymnosperms, typically conifers (pines, cedars, cypress, firs, etc.), is also sometimes excreted from some angiosperm buds and flowers as well (Elpel, T. J. 2018). These complex compounds do not contain nitrogen and form a thick sticky gooey plant exudate that solidifies into a hard semi translucent mass sealing off the wound. This occurs in response to environmental stressors such as injury from pathogens, insects and animals (Heidi 2021). The pungency of the resins work as deterrents, while the stickiness traps and subdues the offense. These plant exudates like gums secrete out onto the exterior surface of plants. Although, resins are extremely viscid and completely hydrophobic and solubility arises in ethanol and hot oils.
Historically traded and cherished for the unique beauty, fossilized plant resins form amber. For thousands of years resins have been utilized as incense and water proofing agents in addition to other purposes. Currently plant resins are used as furniture varnish, perfumery, artificial flavoring along with solvent, cleaning, and insecticide production amongst others.
Medicinally these potent oxidized oils have potential expectorant, diaphoretic, demulcent, antispasmodic and diuretic actions upon the body in addition to others. The viscosity of plant resins are difficult to metabolize and excessive use is hard on the renal tubules (Elpel, T. J. 2018). That being said, that same viscosity is a useful “scraping” agent which may aid in ridding the body of “stuck” deeply embedded toxins. The warm stimulating aspects are useful when topically applied to arthritic joints and a sore musculature.
Latex
Plant latexes often contain terpene structural components such as polyisoprene, sesquiterpene lactones, diterpenes, triterpenes and cardenolides (Pichersky, E., Raguso, R. A. 2016). Generally plant latex is a white to cream colored milky emulsion that exudes from specialized latex vessels. These specialized vessels are referred to as Laticifer cells (Krstić, G., et al. 2016) and secrete latex in response to injury as a means of defense from herbivores. Fairly common amongst angiosperms like those residing in the asteraceae plant family such as Thistles, Dandelions, or Chicory. The flavors of latex range from quite tasty to bitter and acrid and even noxious and highly toxic containing dangerous alkaloids. While bitter latexes may support digestion and assimilation, acrid latexes are more stimulating promoting mobility and relaxation while supporting excretion. Some latexes are awfully noxious and can be quite irritating effecting respiration and cardiac rhythm (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Papain
Another plant enzyme demonstrating proteolytic and esterase (enzymatic hydrolization) reactions would be Papain. Papain may be obtained from scarification of an unripe Papaya (Carica papaya), a white latex is excreted in responds to the wound acting as a deterrent thus protecting the unripe fruit. Papain may be utilized the same as Bromelain. Additionally in correlation with harvesting methods the enzymatic latex may be used as a topical agent that modulates inflammation (HA n.d.).
Our next group of constituents up for discussion is the Alkaloids. This is a large group of compounds with roughly 5000 known and studied alkaloid structures. Although vastly diverse, one common occurrence in all Alkaloids is that they contain a nitrogen component. Available nitrogen circulates freely via the SAP otherwise accumulates in different tissues of the plant. Plants utilize the nitrogen components in protein synthesis, when growth is accelerated a demand for protein is required. In turn nitrogen production is increased, incidentally this rapid metabolism ineffectively utilizes the ramped up nitrogen content (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Typically associated with more torrid areas, plants use these secondary metabolites to support growth regulation and aid in plant defense in addition to other functions.
Alkaloids
Medicinally many alkaloids have strong outcomes on mammalian nervous systems. Whether it be to excite or depress the system, influencing respiration, circulation, cardiac rhythm and vascular pressure etc. Case in point, Capsaicin and Caffeine alkaloids are known stimulants, whereas Morphine or Scopolamine alkaloids are familiar depressants, including autonomic division effectors such as Atropine or Yohimbine (HA n.d.). A narcotic is any alkaloid that suppresses or dampens the nervous system (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Often the taste of alkaloids is quite bitter, signifying the potential outcomes on the body. A sort of plant warning system aka a deterrent if you will. Many alkaloids are quite dangerous and toxic to animals but often times, alkaloids prove to be very beneficial. Soluble in water and ethanol, with greater extraction accompanying more acidic solutions such as low potential hydrogen (acidic) water and mid to high percentage hydroethanolic solvents.
Let us elaborate, there are numerous and vastly diverse beneficial alkaloids. So much so that we will exemplify this with only a few plants. The suffix -in, ine, or -ane typically indicate the alkaloid classification.
Members of the Papaveraceae family have been traditionally utilized for their medicinal alkaloids, often times employed as hypotensive, anxiolytic and sedative agents. Alkaloids such as Pavine and Berberine are thought to be at the core of the poppy extracts (HA n.d.).
Isoquinoline
The Berberidaceae plant family such as Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) root, Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) root and Oregon Grape Root (Mahonia aquifolium) root bark, carry a group of secondary metabolites regarded as Isoquinoline alkaloids. Berberine in particular has been associated with antibacterial, antiparasitic, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic and hypotensive properties (USDA 1992-2016). Berberine being extremely bitter is potentially the mode of action as berberine shows low bioavailability and works more locally opposed to systemically. Isolated primarily from the roots, rhizomes, stems and bark of plants that contain these constituents and unlike other isoquinoline alkaloids, berberine is water soluble (HA n.d.). For example plants such as Gold thread (Coptis trifolia) rhizome, Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictorides) root and Yellow root (Xanthorhiza simplicissama) root, may be included with those that contain berberine (USDA 1992-2016).
Xanthine
Yerba Matē (Ilex paraguariensis) has a set of constituents known a Xanthine alkaloids and their derivatives Theobromine, Theophylline and Caffeine. Theobromine, Theophylline and Caffeine are known for their stimulating effects on the heart, while Theophylline acts on the respiratory system serving as a bronchial dilator and on the central nervous system (Duke, J. 1992) elevating mood, activity and alertness. These properties in addition to the polyphonic flavonoids Quercetin and Rutin along with the remaining constituents serve as useful nervines in mental and physical depression (HA n.d.). I. paraguariensis potentially elicits nervine, anxiolytic, analgesic, diuretic, anti-rheumatic, hypoglycemic, and anticarcinogenic properties in addition to others (Duke, J. 1992). Tea (Camellia sinensis), Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and Coffee (Coffee arabica) for example also contain Xanthine derivatives (USDA 1992-2016).
Purines
Pruine type alkaloids such as caffeine may stimulate hormone production particularly the chatecholamines Norepinephrine and Epinephrine (adrenaline). Typically over consumed amongst people and more often than not is accompanied with agitation and irritability. Including nervousness, irregular and rapid heart rate, heartburn, elevated blood sugar and cholesterol (Elpel, T. J. 2018). I suppose medicinally speaking, in a few cases caffeine as a last resort may possibly support those experiencing lethargy, fatigue, bradycardia and a few situations of cognitive decline. If you are one of those individuals that consume caffeine habitually, I strongly suggest finding other means of stimulation. Perhaps a strong cup of that Drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera) we spoke about earlier as M. Oleifera not only contains amino acids but vitamins and nutrients including a number of different polyphenols and flavonoids.
In Closing
Plants have the ability to interact with their environment and adapt to the situations that arise, utilizing a multitude of constituents in a unified array of ways. flourishing by creating these phytochemicals that support growth, development and reproduction while encompassing plant defense and attraction. After all plants are incapable of fleeing from danger, nor are they able to go get help when they’ve become ill. These constituents help the plants to succeed in their environment.
We discussed how plant molecules contain carbon bonding in the makeup of organic chemical constituents. Chemical constituents like the primary metabolites that are saccharide compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which partially compose roots, tubers and rhizomes. Including how saccharides come together and condense to form more complex compounds like the polysaccharides. Polysaccharides such as the cellulose of leaves, stems and bark and when these structures are consumed are considered to be dietary roughage such as fiber. Or how saccharide structures form mucilaginous compounds that potentially aids us in our mobility. We spoke of the other primary metabolites protein and lipids, lipids like castor oil which aids us in the removal of stagnation and toxins. We also learned that saccharide structures are components of secondary plant metabolites too, such as glycosides and the storage of inactive constituents for later use. Including how saccharides are apart of the formation of aromatic amino acids, like the glucosinolates of Moringa plants and how Moringa has been implemented with those traversing cancer. We discussed how the secondary plant metabolites are not essential to growth, development and reproduction but are a formation of altered and broken down primary metabolites. In our discussion we addressed that secondary metabolites are more reactive and compose phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids and alkaloids. More precisely we talked about the power of phenols and the antioxidant effects of proanthocyanidins, the antimicrobial activities of tannins and the anti-inflammatory actions of organic acids. We became familiar with flavonoid pigments, the pink to black hues of anthocyanins, the bronze colors of chalcones and aurones displaying the brightest of yellows. We discussed aromatic hydrocarbons of benzene and isoprene. Isoprene a fundamental component of terpene compounds, which is a major contributor to the anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of terpenoids. We also touched on the oxidation of these aromatic oils and their formation of plant resins and the medicinal potentials.
We have taken from a table of prepared of knowledge, numerous basic principles and ideas of plant compounds. We became familiar with how plants create chemicals that participate in their survival. Which oftentimes has the same effects on us, perhaps aiding us in our survival as well. Hopefully bringing a bit of validation to the simplification of “this plant is good for”.
Medica Materia – Alchemy
Plant Constituents; Active Isolation
Now that mysticism is no longer the discernment the yields the healing outcomes, please continue to enjoy the journey in the wonderful world of plant knowledge.
🜁 🜃 🜀 🜂 🜄
Brought to you from Herbal Restoration LLC, Written By Herbalist S. Reese. All Rights Reserved © 2024 Herbal Restoration LLC.
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Higdon, J., Drake, V., Delage, B., & Racette, S. (2019). Carotenoids. α-Carotene, β-Carotene, β-Cryptoxanthin, Lycopene, Lutein, and Zeaxanthin.. Oregon State University. Retrieved: https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/carotenoids
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Höld, K. M., Sirisoma, N. S., Ikeda, T., Narahashi, T., & Casida, J. E. (2000). Alpha-thujone (the active component of absinthe): gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97(8), 3826–3831. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.070042397 Retrieved; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18101/
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Plant Constituents, Active Isolation
Medica Materia, Alchemy
When we think of plants potential physiological influences oftentimes contemplation becomes mysticism behind the discernment of that which yield’s the healing outcomes. While other times we may try to consider the science behind the mysticism and attempt to understand the phytochemistry that resides within the plants.
In this study we will attempt to partially remove the veil of a few basic properties into the form and functions of plants including their structural components. We will briefly discuss the primary and secondary metabolites, their elements, classifications and activities. We will be bringing familiarity to basic plant structures, paving the way to a more in-depth understanding of the wonderful world of plants.
While botany encompasses not only the biology of plants, it also includes the physiology, ecology and the classification of such. Phytochemistry is the study of plant constituents that composes the biological components. These plant constituents of biological components are the compounds that exert physiological changes within us, yielding the potential healing influence.
It may need to go without saying but for clarification our aim is to become familiar with concepts and terminology, thus the medicinal properties and activities referenced should not be considered as medical advice or treatment of any disease or illness. Think of plants as beings of support and not agents of control.
What Are Plant Constituents
Understanding plant constituent is expansive as phytochemistry is vast. A good starting point would be to first consider that fruits, vegetables, grains and herbs are composed of a complex set of reoccurring molecules that are commonly referred to as phytonutrients, phytochemicals or chemical constituents. Which are not only vitamins and minerals but many other compounds as well. A single plant whether it be fruits, vegetables, grains or herbs may consist of hundreds if not thousands of constituents (HA n.d.).
Simultaneously in a united approach these phytonutrients work synergistically in the plant to support growth, metabolism, reproduction and defense. This synergism is carried over in their effects or actions on the human body and our cells as well. That which supports the plants in their survival may potentially aid us in ours.
Entourage Effect
One should keep this whole plant synergy in mind as we can use Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) as an example as F. ulmaria contains amongst other beneficial constituents Salicylic acid (USDA 1992-2016) a phenolic constituent that was isolated and synthesized for reproduction and manufacturing of famous None Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin (Paterson, J. R., Lawrence, J. R. 2001). While many people have traditionally utilized F. ulmaria to support rheumatism, joint and muscle pain, including gastrointestinal upset such as dyspepsia and ulceration (HA n.d.). The same cannot be said about the former as aspirin has been shown to exhibit negative gastrointestinal side effects including such things as ulceration (Cunha, J. P. 2020). This is because they lack the synergism and thus the entourage effect of the other beneficial constituents.
To comprehend how plants exhibit an effect on the body and our cells, we will have to consider the constituents in there individual isolated states and momentarily step away from the plants totality. The plants chemical constituents that serve in its form and function may be initially subdivided into two main categories by their means of metabolic production.
Metabolic Production
First, Primary Metabolites such as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids serve in plant growth, metabolism and reproduction. While the other may be referred to as Secondary Metabolites such as flavonoids, terpenoids and various alkaloids which are produced from primary metabolites. Secondary metabolites serve in array of functions including plant attraction and defense. These secondary metabolites are also generally responsible for plants distinctive colors, aromas, flavors and/or activities.
Organic Elements
We should also consider the chemistry as well, take for example organic constituents consist of one or more carbon elements. These carbon elements typically form bonds between molecules that carry an electrostatic charge. These molecules that the carbon bond together are of an opposite charge and may be considered as covalent or having a covalent bond.
While on the other side of this polarity lays inorganic molecules that form un-ionized bonds otherwise known as an ionic bond and are typically associated with minerals (including some alkaloids). Molecules are often illustrated as line-angle drawings aka a skeletal structure or formula, whether it be a continuous chain or ring (Libretexts 2020)
Plants are known for their “organic” compounds due to the consistent bonding of molecules through carbon.
At one time the general census of organic chemistry was that of living organisms requiring, what may be likened to 🜀, Pneuma (Greek), Prana (Sanskrit), or Qi (Chinese) a “vital force” or “breath of life” quickening the organism. Not simply conceived as gas or a medium required by plants and animals to live. But rather a thought of something more ergō a life giving force over the whole being. Until the discovery of organic compounds ability to be synthesized, thus reducing the definition of “organic chemistry” to molecules containing carbon (HA n.d.). Thats right, I just said, “organic” simply refers to elements with carbon!
Reactive Groups
Organic constituents of plants are bound by oppositely charged ions from one molecule to the next in which there are three major subsets of carbon bonding; first those containing hydrogen, secondly containing oxygen and thirdly containing nitrogen bonds. It is helpful to understand the functional group as it typically is most reactive and generally responsible for the activity in the body and upon the cells (HA n.d.).
Hydrocarbon
Organic constituents containing Hydrocarbon bonds range from a simple single bond of hydrogen to carbon, to more complex bonds consisting of two or three bonds making the molecule reactive and thus the functional group of compound like that of aromatics consisting of three double bonds. The reactive groups of hydrocarbon structures would be the alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and arenes (aromatic hydrocarbons) (Ayelet. 2022).
Oxygen
Organic constituents containing Oxygen as the functional group would be the Alcohols, Ethers, Ketones, Aldehydes and Carboxylic acids along the lines of menthol, diethyl ether, flavones, cinnamaldehyde and acetic acid.
Nitrogen
Organic constituents containing Nitrogen as the functional group would include Amines, Amides, Nitriles (Ayelet. 2022) and Nitro groups such as alkaloids, proteins, cyanide and nitrogen oxide.
Like Dissolves Like
Additionally it is also helpful to understand the solubility ♏︎ of which these constituents are composed and released. Lets take into account one influential aspect determining water- or fat-solubility, that being the conductivity of ionization or its polarity (Gordon, E. 2021). Like mixing of oil 🝆 (non-polar) and water 🜄 (polar), they don’t mesh together.
For simplification, charged molecules (polar) typically form hydrophilic or water-soluble molecules. The potential hydrogen (pH) of the solution ♋︎ determines the extent at which the charged molecules will be released (HA n.d.). Greater the charge, the higher the pH (basic or alkaline), otherwise the lower the charge the lower the pH aka acidic 🜊 in nature. In other words “Like Dissolves Like”.
Whereas un-ionized or un-charged (non-polar) ions typically form lipophilic or lipid-soluble molecules. These un-ionized molecules are generally of an acidic nature and remain un-ionized in a acidic 🜊 solution (Gordon, E. 2021).
Primary Metabolites
The primary metabolite that is carbohydrates aka saccharides or sugars may be classified by the number of their carbon atoms. Sugar as we all are too familiar with is sweet and put simply may be considered as glucose, fructose and sucrose.
Plant saccharides are formed from air, water and sunlight. The suns energy breaks down the water (H2O = O2 & CO2) and reforms it into saccharides (CH2O) and oxygen (O2). These saccharides are the main form of energy storage for the plants and are heavily concentrated in roots, tubers and rhizomes (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Bringing the focus back to metabolic production lets discuss primary metabolites. If you recall earlier, we briefly mentioned the first constituents arising within plant cells would be the primary metabolites: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Vitally important as these are the energy producers enabling the plants to digest, assimilate and produce organic molecules for cellular structures such as cellulose or conveying information such as ribonucleic acid.
The mini hydrogen bonds that make up the saccharide structures, connecting one atom to the next are highly hydroscopic. In other words, sugars absorb and dissolve rather quickly and easily in water.
Saccharides
Saccharides form chains or rings of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen such as monosaccharides or disaccharides. Monosaccharides as the name implies “mono” typically contains one sugar molecule, while disaccharides are typically formed from condensation of two monosaccharides. Oligomeric or oligosaccharides contain a few monosaccharide rings while polymeric or polysaccharides generally contain many condensed and varied monosaccharide rings (Rye, C., Wise, R., et al. 2016).
The diversity of monosaccharides is complex containing hundreds of molecules some specific to certain plant families while others are commonly present in most plants. Monosaccharides (CH2O) generally have 3 to 7 carbon atoms, one for each water (H2O) equivalent availability. The complexity of these monosaccharides may include trioses (C3 H6 O3) containing 3 carbon atoms, tetroses (C4 H8 O4), pentoses (C5 H10 O5), hexoses (C6 H12 O6), etc (Rye, C., Wise, R., et al. 2016). and their derivatives such as deoxypentoses, deoxyhexoses, dideoxyhexoses, as well as uronic acids, polyalcohols, esters, ethers, amongst others (HA n.d.).
Reactivity
The more sugars connected the more complex the sugar becomes aka more reactive. With more complex elements such as disaccharides, to illustrate this point (although not very complex) are formed through condensation. This condensation or formation is a process of hydrogen bonding of one monosaccharide to another monosaccharide releasing the water element thus creating a new bond termed a glycosidic bond (Bhagavan, N. V. 2001).
Monosaccharides
Two common monosaccharide constituents often found on labels of foods, supplements, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, etc. might be Ascorbic acid and Sorbitol. Ascorbic acid aka Vitamin C for example is heavily concentrated in many plants and their fruits such as the sepals of Hibiscus (Hibiscus syriacus) or the fruits of Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) and Rose hips (Rosa spp.) (HA n.d.). Speaking of the rose species, Sorbitol a monosaccharide derivative is commonly found in the fruits of the rose family (Rosaceae) such as apricots, plums, or cherrys for exemplification (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Sorbitol
Sorbitol being hydroscopic acts as a laxative and clearing agent within the gastrointestinal system potentially drawing moisture along with toxins into the system to facilitate excretion. Or as a humectant in cosmetics, either as an agent to moisten the skin or as a thickener for consistency of the product
As I mention in my teachings of nutrition, Ascorbic acid is an antioxidant and enzymatic cofactor aiding in iron absorption and may be needed for synthesis of connective tissue, neural messaging, gene expression, and maintenance of genome stability. (Higdon, J., et al. 2019).
Oligomeric Saccharides
Stepping up the complexity and thus the reactive groups we come to disaccharides and oligosaccharides. Commonly found Raffinose and Stachyose are oligomeric saccharides present in most legumes (T. Sako, & R. Tanaka 2011). Both disaccharides and oligosaccharides are formed when 2 to 10 monosaccharide molecules condense. These simple sugars are connected through a glycosidic bond such as in sucrose which may be isolated from Sugar Beet (Beta vulgaris), or Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) (K.A. 2022). When we consume carbohydrates the sugar gets broken down for energy, this allows the molecules to revert back to water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (O2) (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Polymeric Saccharides
Polysaccharides are another type of sugar molecule usually containing ten or more condensed monosaccharide sugar rings. These rings join to compose starches (storage molecules of plants), cellulose (cells of plant structures), pectins (flexible centers of plant cells), fiber, etc. (S. Lee 2017). Polysaccharides like these would perhaps be best extracted in hot water.
Plants, some more than others store energy in the form of starchy roots or tubers this energy storage is formed over the summer months as a means to boost growth the following spring. The oversized root may be referred to as a tuber, as in the roots of Potato (Solanum tuberosum) or Cassava (Manihot esculenta). Often the spring growth arises out of starchy underground branches referred to as rhizomes. Seeds also typically have a starchy element to support growth of the embryo referred to as an endosperm. These starchy roots, tubers and rhizomes including some seeds may be utilized medicinally as a poultice macerated into a bolus that is applied topically as a drawing agent to absorb contaminants whether it be splinters, stings, toxins, etc. Generally starchy roots, tubers, rhizomes and seeds are edible although not all are as some contain harmful alkaloids.
Another key group of polysaccharides would be those fruiting bodies of fungi.
Cell Rigidity
The structural aspect of plants that is the rigidity of cell walls in addition to the starches that give roots, tubers and rhizomes stability we may also consider other plant structures as well. Like that of the leaf, stem or bark which are composed primarily of cellulose and lignins (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Cellulose a water insoluble constituent that serves in plant protection from dehydration due to celluloses gelling ability (HA n.d). Lignins are generally a tougher more ridged cell wall constituent heavily condensed in woods and barks. Though insoluble cellulose is hydrophilic, whereas lignins are also insoluble they tend to be more hydrophobic.
Fiber
These forms of solubility are typically associated with digestive roughage and bulking agents commonly referred to as fiber. The insolubility of cellulose and lignins that resists pepsis as these vegetable residues pass through the digestive tract relatively intact. Give fiber the ability to normalize intestinal transit (reducing constipation), increase insulin sensitivity (balancing blood sugar), and supports weight-loss through satiety and more.
Inulin
Inulin, a polymer of fructose referred to as a Fructan is a water soluble fiber and medicinal constituent often found in the roots of plants. Inulin is heavily condensed in a number of different plant families, including Asteraceae, Boraginaceae, Campanulaceae, and many others. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) roots are sometimes roasted breaking down the Inulin to bring about the sweet taste of the fructose. Inulin may be utilized in liver support, balancing blood lipids (cholesterol), or strengthening immunity by means of feeding angi (probiotics) acting as prebiotics (P. Glibowski, & K. Skrzypczak 2017) in addition to other actions upon the body.
Pectins
Pectins are complex polymers with strong conductivity. Fruits are typically high in pectins as they are utilized in the formation of cell walls as well and therefore younger fruits tend to have higher concentrations. Apples are said to contain high quantities of pectins which enables them to form jells, in-fact apple pectins are often employed in jams and jelly confection. Pectins are a reoccurring constituent of the Rutaceae, Rosaceae, Malvaceae, and Asteraceae plant families. The medicinal properties of pectins service wound healing, ulceration, and digestive support whether it be to bulk up loose stools or draw out toxins (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Reflexive Effect
The slippery gelatinous hydroscopic constituent that is mucilage, a large condensed monosaccharide linear polymers containing pentose (C5 H10 O5) and hexose (C6 H12 O6) sugars. Mucilage is moderately common amongst plants but is fairly abundant in Cactaceae, Malvaceae, Fabaceae, Linaceae, Portulacaceae, and Boraginaceae plant families (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Generally these plant families utilize mucilage as a means of water storage protecting from dehydration like cellulose but to a much greater extent.
This type of compound is best extracted in cold water. Externally mucilaginous plant constituents may be utilized as an emollient bringing about relief to mild burns and irritated skin. Mucilage is an insoluble fiber that may be utilized as a demulcent within the body whether it be through direct or indirect contact. Being insoluble and resisting pepsis, mucilage cools down, coats and soothes hot, inflamed, irritated mucosal tissues of the body, particularly useful in digestive and urogenital ulceration. On top of that, mucilage having strong conductivity has the potential to absorb toxins and contaminants from the body whether from the digestive, urogenital or respiratory tract for expulsion thus aids in recuperation. Mucilage is likened to mucopolysaccharide hydrogel or Glycosaminoglycans or GAGs for short, GAGs partially compose the fluid matrix of the synovium thus supports mobility, especially after damage has occurred (HA n.d.).
Gums
Gums 🝉 are plant constituents similar to mucilage but are quite a bit thicker and stickier. Gums 🝉 are branch polymers and being so are highly soluble forming true gels when combined with water (HA n.d.). These gums 🝉 are secondary metabolites and serve as a means of protection that forms from specialized ducts which gets secreted in response to stress, infection or injury. Commonly referred to as exudates, these gums ooze out onto the exterior of the plant in a process know as gummosis. This is where the gum 🝉 absorbs water, expands and later dries into a hard semi translucent mass to seal off the wound or isolate an infection to facilitate healing (Shayla, H. 2021).
These gums can be found throughout the plant kingdom but are heavily concentrated in the Fabaceae, Burseraceae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae plant families. Most gums are relatively safe and may be used and consumed as medicinal agents. Gums are often employed as emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers in a multitude of applications but for exemplification, in foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics etc. (HA n.d.).
Gum arabic (Acaci spp.) is often spoken of when discussing gums 🝉, Gum arabic or Acaci gum which was used over a millennia ago by Ancient Egyptians as an adhesive in mummification of corpses (Shayla, H. 2021). Tragacanth gum (Astragalus gummifer) a medicinal agent praised by Ancient Greek physicians is now commonly used in cooking whether it be to thicken or maintain consistency. Larch gum (Larix occidentalis) a gum 🝉 excreted from the wood of a North American conifer. Guar gum (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) a seed gum, or the algal polymer constituents carrageenan and agar which are algae gums isolated from Rhodophyceae seaweeds are a few examples.
To recap we’ve discussed the combination of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which forms hydrophilic simple sugars like that of monosaccharides such as Ascorbic acid and Sorbitol, or the disaccharides and oligosaccharides and their use for energy production as well. In addition to more complex carbohydrates such as polysaccharides and how they form plant structures, including plant exudates that are gums.
Shikimate Pathway
Shikimic acid serves as a necessary biomolecule in the transformation of monosaccharides into the secondary metabolites that are “Aromatic” Amino Acids. Bacteria, algae, fungi and plants utilize this transformative pathway to synthesize, Aromatic Amino Acid metabolites (Herrmann, K. M., Weaver, L. M. 1999) such as Tyrosine, Tryptophan and Phenylalanine (Tzin, V., & Galili, G. 2010).
Aromatic amino acids absorb ultraviolet waves to synthesize florescence. Phenolic compounds such as flavonoids and curcuminoids synthesize their familiar pigments utilizing this shikimate route. A common precursor to numerous phenolic structures like that of tannins and lignins in addition to others is the utilization of shikimic acid in their formation (Habtemariam, S. 2019).
Amino acids in general are organic compounds that have functional amino (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups and contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) in addition to other elements which may very in differing plant species (Lopez MJ, Mohiuddin SS. (2022).
Glucosinolates
An interesting group of amino acid constituents would be the Glucosinolates. Glucosinolates are secondary metabolites owning a sulfur 🜍 element which is partially responsible for the characteristic pungent aroma of the Brassicaceae plant family. The pungency of the Glucosinolate gets released after structural damage occurs which aids in plant defense (Elpel, T. J. 2018). A commonly recognized glucosinolate derivative perhaps would be Isothiocyanate. This constituent is an important group of medicinal agents in Brassicas such as mustard, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, collards, horseradish and others.
Let’s illustrate this with Maca (Lepidium meyenii) which has many other constituents as well but one of the main active phytochemicals partially responsible for some of the medicinal actions of Maca is its glucosinolates. Maca has been utilized to balance endocrine, immune, and reproductive functioning in addition to others (HA n.d.).
Or take Moringa, which has often been implemented with those traversing cancer. The seed of Drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera) is a great example as it contains the glucosinolate derivative Glucomoringin. Glucomoringin potentially elicits chemoprotective properties amongst others. (Rajan, T. S., De Nicola, G. R. 2016).
Protein
When 2 or more amino acids link together they form a type of bond often referred to as a peptide (amide), this bond composes protein structures. The plant constituents that are proteins serve to support seed growth, form plant structures and other functions such as participating in photosynthesis, growth regulation and plant immunity for example (Rasheed, F., Markgren, J. 2020). Protein is soluble in water but denatures in ethanol.
When people hear about proteins, nutrition usually comes to mind and for good reason because when people consume the 9 essential (obtained through diet) amino acids a complete protein is formed. Proteins in both plants and people serve as important biomolecules composing cell membranes, maintaining fluidity and respiration, and modulating enzymatic activity (HA n.d.).
Proteins serve numerous bodily functions, from energy expenditure to gene expression (H.A. n.d.). The body requires 20 different amino acids to derive all of the protein structures of the body. By altering the amino acid chains, we can synthesize thousands of different structures and therefore are considered major building blocks (Harvard T.H. Chan 2020).
Gelatin
Gelatin is a type of protein produced in both plants and animals, generally recognized as a setting agent used to make the world famous Jell-O but other confections as well. Similax of the Greenbrier plant family produces gelatin, some Lichens as well also produce gelatin. Gelatin can be dried and powdered for topical application on minor abrasions to stop hemorrhaging (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Stevia
I’m sure most have heard of Stevia a zero-calorie sugar substitute. Well Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) is utilized for its protein, this protein is non-toxic, non-cariogenic, non-calorific and is over 150 times sweeter than sugar, hence its popularity. The primary sweetening agent is the glycoside Stevioside this secondary plant metabolite is extracted from the leaf of this plant (Vaghela, S., Soni, A. 2020).
Enzymes
Proteins whether in plants or otherwise participate in enzymatic activities. To simplify the understanding of biochemical enzymatic reaction it may be explained as proteins within a substrate that catalyze molecules may be considered as enzymes. In other words the constituent, in this case is the enzyme (protein) reacts to the substrate to initiate a response. (Cooper, G. M. 2000). Enzymes are often found in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and used by food enthusiasts.
Bromelain
A proteolytic (protein breakdown) enzyme commonly utilized by Herbalist would be Bromelain. Bromelain a constituent of pineapples (Ananas comosus) from the Bromeliaceae plant family, is heavily concentrated in the stem of the plant and the core of the ripe fruit. This enzyme when consumed supports digestion in its ability to breakdown foods. When consumed away from food aids in the breakdown of fibrin which forms as a result of inflammation thus reducing inflammation from the resulting improved flow of blood (HA n.d.).
Lipids 🝆
With that we now have approached the last primary plant metabolite that being lipids. Lipids otherwise referred to as fats or oils are constituents in cellular structures and energy reserves like that of phospholipids composing cell membranes or coating elements such as waxes. This class of compounds may encompass fatty acids, steroids and terpenes.
The chemical structures of lipids contain Carbon and Hydrogen. These structures are composed of long chains of carbon atoms surrounded by hydrogen atoms. As the hydrogen atoms occupy the carbon bonds, the degree of saturation increases. These varying ratios refer to Saturated and Unsaturated fats or lipids (Vitz E., Moore J.W., et al. 2020). For discussion let’s refer as oils being less saturated than fats. With saturated fats, every bond in the carbon chain has been occupied by hydrogen atoms and solidifies at room temperature. With unsaturated oils, which are more common in plants are typically liquid at room temperature. May be further subdivided in accordance with the varying ratios of carbon to hydrogen.
Lipophilic 🝆
When it comes to the solubility of lipids 🝆 we should consider the medium while “fats” or “oils” are lipophilic meaning these constituents are fat-soluble and best dissolved acidic medium such as oils, fats or ethanol. Recalling the discussion of solubility previously mentioned, un-ionized molecules like that of lipids are generally of an acidic 🜊 nature.
Important for a number of reasons let’s cover a couple, first in attempt to extract ♏︎ acidic natured elements from plants such as lipids. Would be best extracted using saturated fats or unsaturated oils. While herbal preparations are beyond the scope of plant constituents, saturated fats or oils may be use in an extraction process referred to as Cold Enfleurage. Additionally Phospholipids act as emulsifiers aiding in transdermal delivery when the solvent or medium has a saturated fat component (HA n.d.).
Lipids of plants such as Olive or Almond oils are primarily composed of triglyceride (glycerol & 3 fatty acids) constituents and are quite useful when it comes to extruding hydrophobic (inability to combine with water) constituents. These oils may be considered as carrier oils when utilized to extract lipophilic constituents. Numerous plant lipids are employed medicinally, for instance:
Oleic acid
Omega-9 fatty acid
Olive (Olea europaea) seed oil, is condensed with mono-unsaturated fatty acids containing amongst other constituents Vitamin E (Topocherol & Tocotrienol) making it useful as a lubricating and moistening agent, soothing mucosal tissue. Often employed in cooking and cosmetology.
Almond (Prunus dulcis) seed oil, has similar composition of olive oil having mono-unsaturated fatty acids, Topocherols, Tocotrienols and Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) with similar applications to olive oil, also often implemented in dermatology and cosmetology.
Castor (Ricinus communis) seed oil, I personally am quite fond of this plant as its medicinal properties are just as impressive as its appearance. Also high in triglycerides, particularly the unsaturated fatty element Ricinoleic Acid which is mainly responsible for the seeds medicinal effects. This herb is generally used as a topical agent to draw out and remove toxins and stagnation. Castor oil is classified as an antioxidant, antimicrobial, lymphatic, Immunostimulant and anti-inflammatory agent (HA n.d.).
Waxes 🝊
Many familiar with “Jojoba oil” may be surprised to discover this oil is more of a wax, wax? Yup, waxes are fairly common amongst the plant kingdom, examples may include Carnauba (Copernicia prunifera) leaf wax, Or Candelilla wax from the Euphorbiaceae family.
Waxes, Cutins and Suberin are big hydrophobic polymers generally located on plant surfaces. These extracellular lipids provide protection from heat, transpiration and infection. The white / blueish coating, a Epicuticular Wax (ECW) often admired on Xerophytes (plants with extreme adaptability) such as succulents, palms and other desert dwelling plants is another type of plant wax. Being incredibly hydrophobic plant waxes are best extracted in warm fats or oils.
Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) seed oil, a non-greasy combination of waxes is similar to the composition of sebum (human bodily oil). Thus making jojoba oil humectant, noncomedogenic, hypoallergenic, antimicrobial and antioxidant as it also contains Topocherol & Tocotrienol. Thus explaining its common reoccurrence in dermatology (HA n.d.).
Energetic Consideration
When considering traditional modalities such as Āyurveda (Indian), Physick (Greek) or Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). It is useful to think of plants as having a type of quality or energy that resides within them. This quality or energetic influence affects the overall quality or energetic state of the body it has been introduced to. This same influence also places a sort of match or affinity for a particular organ or its system.
The same may also be said of the individual constituents when isolated from the others. No matter it be primary or secondary metabolites or their derivatives. This energetic influence of each individual constituent will be different than the quality or energy of the entire plant before isolation. Which further contributes to the explanation of the entourage effect.
To extrapolate, the energetic influence of carbohydrates is warm to cold but always moistening. Differing from that of protein which is generally more heating and less moistening. While the same goes for lipids and their different qualities from either carbohydrates or proteins. As such the energy of lipids may not be as heating as protein but is typically warmer than carbohydrates and more moistening than protein but generally not as moistening (to a particular quality) as carbohydrates. Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids all fall under the sweet category. The sweetness of these metabolites typically signifies nutrition and encourages consumption.
The world of primary plant metabolites is complex and extensive, as we are starting to discover. We Discovered many basic elements such as the carbohydrates from simple to complex sugars, amino acids and their composition of protein structures including plant lipids. Which are essential to the formation and function of plants whether it be growth, metabolism or reproduction. Now that you have a basic understanding of such, lets bring to the table so-to-speak plants secondary metabolites.
🜁 🜃 🜂 🜄 Plant Constituents; Secondary Metabolites
Secondary metabolites are not essential in plant growth, development and reproduction but are typically a formation of altered and broken down primary metabolites creating constituents such as Glycosides, Phenols, ☿ Flavonoids and Terpenoids. These secondary metabolites support plants in array of functions including plant defense, communication, and other survival mechanisms. Generally forming the distinctive colors, aromas, flavors and/or activities of plants.
Secondary Metabolites
The secondary plant metabolites that are Glycosides may be thought of as a form of storage where plants bond inactive molecules to sugars for use when called into action. More precisely a glycoside is a sugar molecule which we just discovered is carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (CH2O) bound to a non-sugar (aglycone) molecule in turn creating different forms of secondary metabolites (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Glycosides
Before being called into action glycosides are typically inert and in order to become active, a glycoside must go through a process referred to as Hydrolysis (splitting of water). Hydrolysis is the enzymatic reaction of the sugar within a glycoside being dissolved in a solution (Osborne. 2021).
So if condensation or formation is a process of hydrogen bonding of one monosaccharide to another monosaccharide releasing the water element thus creating a new bond termed a glycosidic bond as previously mention then hydrolysis is the breakdown of the glycosidic bond thus releasing the inactive, stored molecule or secondary metabolite (Osborne. 2021).
Anthraquinone
Anthraquinone Glycoside constituents may be considered as a type of phenolic compound that dwells amongst unrelated plants such as Senna, Cassia, Aloe, Buckthorn and Rheum. With Cassia (Senna alexandria) leaf or pod and Aloe (Aloe vera) leaf, the anthraquinone constituents are strong purgatives and quite stimulating. Its mechanism is often explained as causing the colon to shed part of its mucosa. Whereas Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) fruit and Turkey rhubarb (Rheum palmatum) root, also strong laxatives are not as stimulating and in turn a bit gentler than the former. This stimulating action accompanies a sort of gripping and with continual use people may become dependent on them as without the stimulus the intrinsic peristalsis is weakened (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Cyanide
Cyanide glycosides are diverse and may be classified as Prussic acid, Hydrocyanic acid, Cyanogen or Cyanphore. This group of constituents are relatively common in the plant kingdom and contain nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. To illustrate this, Cyanide glycosides may be found in the Rosaceae, Caprifoliaceae and Linaceae plant families. Let’s use the Prunus genus of the Rosaceae plant family for discussion. Most seeds of stone fruits contain negligible amounts of the cyanogenic glycoside derived Amygdalin and when Amygdalin is broken down in the body it forms Benzaldehyde and Cyanide. Amygdalin or Laetrile is a controversial anticarcinogenic agent as excessive consumption may cause the cells within the body to asphyxiate since the cyanide inhibits the enzyme cytochrome (a heme protein) oxidase from binding oxygen to our cells. Thus explaining why some Rosaceae plants like that of Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina) inner bark is classified as a sedative amongst others. Boiling water (heat) tends to nullify this outcome making it safe for consumption. The body typically copes with minute amounts of cyanide by adding a sulfur molecule to compose a sulfuric glycoside called Thiocyanate. When in excess though thiocyanate interferes with iodide metabolism in turn reducing thyroid hormone synthesis therefore may exacerbate existing thyroid disorders (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Traditionally Peach Kernels are steamed as part of the medicinal preparation in accordance with TCM.
Sulfuric 🜍 Glycosides
Speaking of goiters, Sulfuric 🜍 glycosides such as the previously mentioned Glucosinolates from the amino acid section which carries a sulfur 🜍 component. Or the just mentioned Thiocyanate a cyanide derivative, both may be considered as sulfuric glycosides that contain nitrogen along with sulfur. These constituents and other sulfuric glycosides are heavily concentrated in the Brassicaceae, Capparaceae, Resedaceae, and Amaryllidaceae plant families. Secondary metabolites such as volatile ☿ oils which own a sulfur 🜍 element like that of onion or garlic are partially responsible for the characteristic pungent odor and are quite irritating (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
If we recall excessive consumption thiocyanate including glucosinolates as well as other sulfuric glycosides may interfere with thyroid hormone synthesis but in moderation actually supports thyroid function (Elpel, T. J. 2018) along with digestion and circulation, key word here “moderation”.
Cardiac Glycoside
Another group of glycosides would be the Cardiac glycosides (Cardenolides and Bufadienolides), these constituents are known for their action upon the heart. Traditional use is in cases of cardiac insufficiency whereby these constituents increase cardiac output thus alter contractions of the heart. Cardiac glycosides are abundantly found in the leaves, flowers and seeds of the Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) plant (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Particularly the cardiac glycoside constituent Digitoxin which is commonly found in prescription drugs for people with certain types of heart failure and kidney impairment (D.O. 2021).
Additional examples might be Lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis) this whole plant contains a type of cardiac glycoside constituent Convallatoxin. Within the flower petals of Pheasant’s eye (Adonis annua) is Astaxanthin another type of cardiac glycoside. The Oleander (Nerium oleander) plant also contains cardiac glycoside constituents such as Oleandrin and Oleandrigenin. These plants amongst others that contain cardiac glycosides carry a steroid component attached to the sugar molecules.
The safety of these plant structures are not without mention as cardiac glycosides are known toxins due to the affects on the sodium-potassium ATPase (enzyme) (Agrawal, A. A., Petschenka, G 2012) in cells of the cardiovascular, neurological, and gastrointestinal systems wherein they alter the membrane potential creating altered rhythms of contraction (Constable, P. D., Hinchcliff, K. W., et al. 2017).
Steroidal compounds
Many glycosides carry a steroid component whether it be Phyto-sterols and their saturated derivatives the Phyto-stanols (collectively termed “Phytosterols”) or the steroidal saponins in addition to others. Plant steroids (triterpenes) are ubiquitous throughout the entire plant kingdom and are found in cell membranes of plants. These plant lipids are considered to be hormonal messengers (Bot, A. 2019) activating plant growth, development and defense.
Such hormonal messengers are akin to our hormonal makeup, oftentimes considered to be hormonal precursors in people (HA n.d.). Additionally phytosterols may be likened to human cholesterol and in being so, in a sense sequesters cholesterol absorption. About 50% of dietary cholesterol gets absorbed while only 5% of phytosterols gets absorbed (Higdon, J., et al. 2022). Though common amongst the plant kingdom residing in vegetables, fruits (seeds or otherwise), grains, and herbs, heavier concentrations may be found in legumes such as Soybean (Glycine max) fruit, or Pea (Pisum sativum) fruits for example.
Let’s take Ashwaganda (Withania somnifera) root, as it contains the steroidal lactone Withanolide, also found in other plants is at the core of its affects. W. somnifera exhibits in relation to the steroidal lactones adaptogenic, aphrodisiac, anxiolytic and diuretic properties (HA n.d.). Other commonly reoccurring phyto-sterols (unsaturated forms), typically found in our diets might be Sitosterol, Stigmasterol and Campesterol. While Sitostanol and Campestanol are the typically rencountered phyto-stanols (saturated forms) (Higdon, J., et al. 2022). Plants with steroidal aglycon molecules may protect against cancer, support prostate function and heart health as phytosterols inhibit cholesterol absorption in turn reducing low density lipoproteins (LDL) (HA n.d.).
Synergist
Saponins are broadly classified as the previously mentioned steroidal aglycons but triterpenoids as well. This type of constituent is a glycoside poison that has low intestinal bioavailability and stimulates digestion, acting as cleaning agents of the intestinal lumen, aiding in calcium and silicone absorption (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Saponins also act as synergist which aid in delivery and assimilation of other plant constituents. Additionally saponins potentially exert antimicrobial, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-tumor, immune stimulating and cholesterol lowering affects, while in large amounts are said to be effective emetics (HA n.d.). These compounds are of great diversity, broadly distributed amongst the plant kingdom but many are heavily condensed, the Sapindus genus of Sapindaceae plant family, Saponaria genus of the Caryophyllaceae family, Yucca genus of the Asparagaceae family, Symphoricarpos of Caprifoliaceae and Ceanothus of Rhamnaceae for example are amongst the plants with higher concentrations (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Saponin containing plants are able to be mashed and worked into a soapy lather that is a rather effective cleansing agent.
Steroidal Saponins
Some saponins elicit phyto-estrogenic activity, these steroidal saponins are structurally akin to our hormonal makeup and potentially interact with androgen, estrogen or oxytocin receptors of the body such as shatavari (Asparagus racemosus) (HA n.d.). These steroidal saponins are primarily found in angiosperms of monocotyledonous plants like that of Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) seed, or Wild Yam (Dioscorea villosa) tuber.
Lock & Key
Consider certain molecules to act like keys that bind aka fill locks otherwise known as receptors, may be referred to as ligands. Another way to look at this might be to consider Agonists as keys that fill aka bind and activate or open receptors (the lock), whereas Antagonist bind aka fill and occupy without activating aka jamming the lock. On a side note, enzymatic reaction may also be considered in the lock and key hypothesis as enzymes behave similarly in a substrate.
Lets take Caltrop as an example (Tribulus terrestris) arial parts, the seed in particular contains the steroidal saponin Protodioscin which resembles androgens and effectively binds with testosterone receptors in turn increases testosterone/epitestosterone levels. In relation to the saponins, Tribulus exerts alterative, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, galactagogue, hypolipidemic and diuretic properties (HA n.d.).
Phytoestrogens
Another type of plant constituent, the phytoestrogens. These non-steroidal compounds exert both estrogen-agonist (activator) and estrogen-antagonist (blocker) reactions. Supporting the endocrine, cardiovascular and nervous systems, beneficial to those with certain types of neuroendocrine imbalances or those experiencing menopausal transition in addition to others. These secondary metabolites of the phenol group partially compose lignans and isoflavonoids. For this group of constituents it may be best to discuss herbs with phyto-estrogenic activity as the compounds are not well understood or easily defined.
Lignans
Lignan from the latin word “wood”, are phenolic compounds that aid in plant defense and structural integrity. Lignan derivatives such as Secoisolariciresinol, Matairesinol, Pinoresinol and Lariciresinol are amongst the more commonly encountered constituents. When it comes to the hormonal aspects of lignans, they exert antagonistic (agonists & antagonist) reactions within our bodies. This is largely dependent of the microbiome or gut flora of the intestinal lumen. While lignans are common amongst the plant kingdom, heavily concentrated in seeds and grains (Higdon, J., et al. 2022). Lignans are also found in many herbs as well, take for example Red clover (Trifolium prantense) arial parts and Oats (Avena sativa) seed both contain this type of constituent. Milk thistle (Silybum marinum) seed contains the lingnan derivative Silymarin which is known to support liver function as a hepatoprotectant. Additionally the lignans of Flax (Linum usitatissum) seeds have been shown to elicit a reduction in oxidative stress, high blood pressure, inflammation and even hormone related cancers thus supports heart health, blood lipids and sugar concentrations including longevity (HA n.d.).
Isoflavonoids
This group of constituents are of the phenolic flavonoid derived compounds that exert estrogen antagonistic reactions. Some examples of isoflavonoid glycosides may include Daidzin, Genistin, Glycitin and their aglycones Daidzein, Genistein, Glycitein (Mizushina, Y. et al. 2013). The majority of isoflavonoid research is from the commonly covered Soybean (Glycine max) which reveals fruits of this plant contains Diadzein, Genistein (including Glycitein) and exerts both estrogen-agonist and estrogen-antagonist activity. The outcome is said to elicit antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity aiding in cancer prevention whether it be breast or prostate, in addition to the activities previously mentioned in the phytoestrogen section (Yu, J., et al. 2016).
Now that we’ve gathered some secondary metabolites and brought understanding to the complexity of plant structures. Like that of the glycosides and how they store constituents for later use. Including the phytoestrogens and steroidal compounds of plants and their potential activities. Let’s prepare a thicker comprehension of secondary metabolites, starting with phenolic constituents such as tannins and other organic acids.
Phenols
Organic compounds with glycosidic bonds containing a hydroxyl (oxygen bound to hydrogen) group attached to a aromatic hydrocarbon derivative of benzene (a 6 membered ring of hydrogen containing 3 double bonds of carbon) may be considered to be a Phenol (Carbolic acid or hydroxybenzene) (Boudreaux, K. A. 2021).
We can take the prospective in the breakdown of some phenols like that of Sour cherry (Prunus cerasus) fruit, Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) fruit or Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) leaf/fruit for example. Wherein the alkaline environment of the urinary 🝕 tract where hydrolysis (the enzymatic reduction of sugar) separates the aglycon from the glycosidic bond releasing the active phenol, elicits a strong disinfecting agent that has been effective in urinary 🝕 tract infections (UTIs) and inflammation (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Phenols are vastly diverse and identified by the parent carbolic component. Case in point the anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, lignans, saponins and isoflavonids briefly mentioned are structurally diverse phenolic derivatives. Including the tannins, flavonoids and curcuminoids which will be briefly discussed momentarily are also grouped as phenolic compounds (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
The diversity of phenols makes it difficult to generalize statements of the medicinal effects, although often considered in heart and blood support. Lets think of phenolic structures as toning to the cardiovascular system, often recognized as antioxidants, antimicrobials and anti-inflammatories. Typically phenolic compounds are excreted rather quickly via the liver (a blood organ) otherwise bioavailability occurs within the colon (HA n.d).
Polyphenols and other Phenolic compounds are common amongst vegetables and fruits, including legumes such as garbanzo or soy and red wine. Simple phenols are typically found in the Salicaceae, Betulaceae and Ericaceae plant families (Elpel, T. J. 2018). let’s go with the Salicylates: Salicin and Salicortin constituents of White Willow (Salix alba) bark, ultimately deriving Salicylic acid for explanation. Salicin potentially affects thermal regulation of the peripheral vasculature which aids in the reduction pain and inflammation in situations of rheumatism and the alike, Salicin may be considered as a simple phenol (Delgoda, R. 2016).
Proanthocyanidins
This group of polyphenol constituents up for discussion is the Proanthocyanidins (Oligomeric Proanthocyanidins (OPC) and Polymers of Flavon-3-ols). These small molecules are considered to be a group of condensed tannins, that in addition to other functions participates in chemical messaging and plant defense. The colorless precursors of various plant pigments affiliated with grapes, Hawthorne berries, elderberries, and cocoa for example. These compounds are water soluble and show poor bioavailability, while that which is potentially available is dependent on the microbiome of the intestinal lumen (HA n.d.). Proanthocyanidins are studied for their potential antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anticarcinogenic activities in addition to supporting immunity, vision, mobility and blood circulation amongst others (Rauf, A., Imran, M., et al. 2019).
Tannins
The group of Polyphenol constituents referred to as “Tannins” is a sort of umbrella term classifying most sets of astringent compounds. Which reforms bonds between large molecules such as pectins, lignans, waxes, resins and most alkaloids for example. Tannins act as magnets so-to-speak, meaning they form linkages by drawing in complex molecules and precipitate them out of a solution. Plants utilize tannins in potential growth regulation and participation in protection. As tannins not only create structural resistance that are bacteriostatic but are also quite bitter at times (HA n.d.). Heavily concentrated in dead and/or dying plants cells, as in the case of plant galls. Larger molecules such as tannic acids are typically not water soluble. Considering these compounds precipitate large molecules out of a solution. They may be thought of as antidotes in cases of alkaloid or heavy metal poisoning.
The term tannin arises from the use of Tannic acid from Oak Bark of the Quercus genus in the Fagaceae family, in which leather is made resistant to the elements. Whereby the collagen fibers are drawn together forming a stronger bond by altering the nature of the hide in turn making the leather water and heat resistant protecting against degradation (HA n.d.).
🜊 Astringent
Tannic acid is the most commonly associated astringent (binding of tissues), tannic acid is abundantly found not only in different species of Quercus but Acacia, Castanea, Rhus, including others as well. While tannic acid is commonly associated with astringency, other acids 🜊 like Malic, Gallic and Tartaric 🝀 acids which bind or constrict tissues together may also be classified as astringents as well (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Acids 🜊 whether they be tannic or otherwise, exert a tightening sort of sensation upon the mouth. As astringent acids 🜊 draw out or precipitate glycoproteins from the saliva almost removing any lubricating slipperiness, like when drinking a “dry” wine. Within this same response of astringency, internally the effects of drying, shrinking or binding are of medicinal application in situations of inflammation, dysentery, ulceration, or in general with loose lax tissues of the body. The same goes for external application for astringents have the ability to be medicinally utilized as styptics to support cuts, blisters, pimples, sunburns, most irruption’s of the skin, etc. as well.
🜊 Organic acids
Phenolic acids like that of Citric, Gallic, Malic, Tartaric 🝀 etc. have a marked astringency and are quite sour. This astringency is drying although these organic acids 🜊 do not carry the dryness of true “Tannins” such as tannic acid. Instead the astringency or binding accompanies a sensation of fluid excretion upon the mouth and saliva production, which is almost moistening in relation to the sourness (Dharmananda S. 2010). These secretions continue throughout the body, particularly the digestive track. Organic acids 🜊 like these get absorbed relatively slowly and as a result act as stool softeners. These constituents are commonly associated with fresh fruits of the Vitaceae, Rosaceae plant families and particularly the Rutaceae family. Depending on the culture, organic acids 🜊 have been traditionally viewed as drying and/or moistening.
Flavonoids
This group of phenolic compounds, like the others are secondary metabolites in a glycosidic bond to different aglycon with a bunch of carbon and a number of benzene rings (in addition to free forms as well). We will get the this “benzene ring” in due time but first. Flavonoids (C6 C3 C6) participate in many roles for example, plant reproduction, disease prevention, growth regulation, chemical messaging, etc. There are roughly 6000 known and studied plant flavonoids and depending on the molecules that make up the compounds, flavonoids may be subcategorized according to their structures (Mathesius U. 2018) for example Anthocyanins and Betalains (a flavonoid intermediate). Chalcones and Aurones in addition to the Anthoxanthins: ketone containing flavonoids Flavones and Flavonols.
Flavonoids are just about universal amongst the plant kingdom and are heavily concentrated amongst fruits especially in berries. These constituents are responsible for plant pigments, from light white to dark blue, like that of fruits but flowers and leaves too. Ever present in most leaves, the colors of fall but hidden behind the chlorophyll.
While Further donating to the diversity of phenolic structures, flavonoids are often considered in heart and blood support. Let’s use a simple analogy of the color of berries, particularly darker pigments to the vitality of the blood (and the vasculature that contains it). In other words, hues of berries to the hues of blood. That which resembles the blood most likely supports it, which relates to the “Doctrine of Signatures”.
With the diversity of flavonoids (Vitamin P) also resides a diversity of medicinal properties, generally speaking, flavonoids may exert astringent, antimicrobial, antioxidant, diuretic, alterative, nutritive, hemostatic, and anti-inflammatory activities. With assimilation primarily dependent on the microbiome of the small intestine and particularly the colon. The bioavailability of flavonoids being low, anthocyanins middling and not so great, while isoflavonoids tend to have the highest bioavailability (HA n.d.). Flavonoids tend to be water and ethanol soluble.
Anthocyanins
This group of somewhat astringent, water 🜄 soluble, polyphenol flavonoids are responsible for the pigments ranging from pink to red including purple and violet too, all the way to blue and even black. Common derivatives of anthocyanin may include Cyanidin (red to reddish purple), Delphinidin (reddish purple to blue), Pelargonidin (orange to red) and their metabolites (Khoo, H. E., Azlan, A., et al. 2017) Proanthocyanide (red to black), Peonidin (purplish blue), Malvidin (reddish), and Petunidin (dark reds to purples).
Considering pH
Dependent on the pH, as shades of red often indicate more acids, whereas shades of blue indicate more alkaline and often utilized as pH indicators. This class of constituents are referred to as Anthocyanins and reside in most tissues of the plant for example roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits (Khoo, H. E., Azlan, A., et al. 2017). Plants that produce anthocyanins utilize these secondary metabolites for a multitude of reasons, particularly pollination and seed distribution. Most are familiar with the antioxidants aka the bioflavonoids of blueberries, cherries, raspberries, or the purple of eggplant or potatoes, perhaps even purple cabbage in which the anthyocyanins are responsible. The anthocyanin constituents of Bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) leaf/fruits, or Blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) fruits (Khoo, H. E., Azlan, A., et al. 2017), as well as Mulberry (Morus alba) fruits, are often employed medicinally in conjunction with the other constituents that reside in these plants.
The medicinal effects of Anthocyanin constituents are shown to support ocular function by promoting vascular health in addition to the potential antioxidant, nuero-protective anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anticarcinogenic activity (Khoo, H. E., Azlan, A., et al. 2017). In correlation with supporting vascular health, anthocyanin constituents also exert antiedema activity, most likely in relation with the astringent and diuretic properties. Anthocyanins are water 🜄 soluble and permeates the stomach (HA n.d.).
Betalain
Much of what is said of anthocyanins can be said of Betalain. This group of compounds while very similar to the former is present in different plants than those that produce anthocyanins. When it comes to betalain, the pigments are derived from the amino acid Tyrosine and contain nitrogen. The betalain derivatives Betacyanins are associated with reddish purple hues, whereas the Betaxanthins are responsible for various hues of yellow to orange. These alkaloid like constituents reside in a multitude of plants, for example many desert dwelling plants of the Cactaceae family carry this type of constituent, additionally many members of the Amaranthacea family also contain betalain (Sadowska-Bartosz, I., Bartosz, G. 2021).
Let’s go with Sugar beet for discussion, Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) root, a member of the Amaranth family which contains betalain derivatives. Due to the nitrogen content, Sugar beet succus (expressed plant juice or Glycine Betalain) has a significant amount of Nitrates (NO3) a component believed to be responsible for the antioxidant and vasodilation aspects of betalain (Chiu, H.F., Wang, C.K. 2020). Additionally beets are known for their high fiber such as the cellulose and lignans, low caloric glucose and fructose, including their nutrient content such as the folates and carotenoids. Collectively, along with the unmentioned constituents, which work together to ensure survival of the plant, also supports us in a myriad of ways. Although we have stepped away from the synergism of the plants we should still have it in mind. As you may have noticed plant constituents usually overlap and work together, such as with the Sugar beet as just mentioned.
Chalcones
The polyphenolic constituent Chalcones are precursors to different types of flavonoid compounds like that of Phloretin, Arbutin, Phlioridzin and Chalco naringenin for example (Torawane, S. D., Mokat, D. N. 2020). Classified as a type of simple flavonoid containing a ketone element (Zhuang, C., Zhang, W. 2017). Chalcones are associated with a range of hydrophobic pigments particularly the bronze and yellow colors residing in many plants. Like those of the Asteraceae and Fabaceae plant families not to mention others. These naturally occurring secondary plant metabolites are present in many fruits and vegetables.
Chalcones are being studied for their medicinal effects upon our cells, most commonly in cancer research for its potential antimitotic and antioxidative effects. In addition to these cytoprotective and modulatory outcomes, chalcones depending on their composition also elicit glycemic homeostatic, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial actions. For example, Xanthohumol a chalcone from the lupulin glands of Hops (Humulus lupulus) is under investigation for the potential protection against bacterial infection, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV-1) and cancer preventative properties (Zhuang, C., Zhang, W. 2017). The medicinal outcomes of chalcone are currently and primarily of in-vitro and in-vivo studies as excretion is rapid and bioavailability is relatively low.
Aurones
This derivative of chalcones also containing a ketone core and expressing the brightest of yellow hues would be the Aurones. There are over 100 different identified aurones and these water 🜄 soluble secondary polyphenol pigments reside in the stems, leaves, petals and seeds of a mixed diversity of plants. Dwelling amongst the Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Plantaginaceae, Rosaceae and Cactaceae families in addition to others. Aurone constituents are recently gaining popularity for their potential antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, anti-malarial and anticarcinogenic properties (Mazziotti, I., Petrarolo, G., La Motta, C. 2021).
Flavones
Also a chalcone derivative this ketone containing group of polyphenol flavonoids are classified as Flavones. Flavones are somewhat water soluble with greater solubility arising in more acidic 🜊 solutions like that of acetic acid or alcohol. These constituents are responsible for hues ranging from colorless to yellow including white. Primarily found in herbaceous plants, to a lesser extent grains and occasionally in yellow to orange fruits. For example Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis) flower, Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) arial parts, Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria biacalensis) root, Celery (Apium graveolens) leaves and stalk, Artichoke (Cynara scolymus) Leaf/fruit and Mandarin (Citrus reticulata) rind, all contain flavone derivatives. Flavones aid plants by acting as copigments and chemical messengers, aiding in nitrogen fixation and growth stimulation, including UV protection and protection from fungal infection and insect infestation (Hostetler, G. L., Ralston, R. A., Schwartz, S. J. 2017). The commonly recognized flavone derivatives would be Apigenin, luteolin, Baicalein, Tangeretin, Sinensetin, Galangin, Chrysin and Ropifolin (Torawane, S. D., Mokat, D. N. 2020) in addition to others. These derivatives amongst others are being studied for their potential antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antimitotic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities (Jiang, N., Doseff, A. I. Grotewold, E. 2016).
Flavonols
This group of ketone containing constituents is very similar to the former with differentiation of flavones residing in the hydroxyl (-OH, oxygen covalently bound to hydrogen) component. For the most part what is said of flavones can be said of flavonols, from plant types (herbs, grains, fruits) and location (arial parts) (Brahmachari, G., Gorai, D. 2006) as flavonols and flavones support growth development, reproduction and UV protection as well, to the solubility and even the various shades of yellow and white. Examples of commonly studied would be Fisetin, Kaempferol, Morin, Myricetin, Rutin, and Quercetin (Panche, A. N 2016) in addition to others. These secondary metabolites are found in plants such as Drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera) leaf / flower, Onion (Allium cepa) bulb, or Grapes (Vitis vinifera) fruit, Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) leaf, Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) head, including Strawberries and Blueberries for example (Zuiter, A. S. 2014). Like flavones, flavonols are studied for their potential antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects amongst other influences exerted upon our physiology (Brahmachari, G., Gorai, D. 2006).
Stilbenoids
Stilbenoids are another group of phenolic constituents owning a tyrosine component. Stilbenoids are colorless compounds that share a similar composition route to that of previously discussed chalcones. Stilbene derivatives we might encounter would be Piceatannol, Petrostilbene, Resveratrol and Gnetol (Akinwumi, B. C., Bordun, K. M., Anderson, H. D. 2018). A stilbenoid of particular interest, Resveratrol which is heavily condensed in a number Polygonaceae residents such as Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia japonica) stem, and He Shou Wu (Polygonum multiflorum) root, including members of the Ericaceae family as well, like that of Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) fruit, and Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) fruit for example (Duke, J. 1992). Plants utilize these lipophilic metabolites in response to stress, ultraviolet exposure, injury or pathogenic infection. While the medicinal influences one may encounter would include antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiedemic, anticarcinogenic and hepaprotective activities (Duke, J. 1992). As mentioned previously cranberry and blueberry contain stilbenoids, we may also include grapes, strawberries, mulberry, pistachios and even cacao (dark chocolate) for example.
Curcuminoids
This group of constituents are lipophilic diketones (2 ketones, 1 carbon), a shikimate derivative classified as Curcuminoids (Pastor-Villaescusa, B., Rangel-Huerta, O. D. 2018). In the grand scheme of constituents, Curcuminoids are a particularly small group of polyphenolic compounds. These compounds are relatively hydrophobic hues of yellow to orange, with poor bioavailability. Generally speaking curcuminoids potentially exert antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, hepaprotectant, neuroprotective, and hypoglycemic activities (Pastor-Villaescusa, B., Rangel-Huerta, O. D. 2018).
Primarily the research on curcuminoids is around Curcumin a constituent of Turmeric (Curcuma longa) rhizome. Curcumin is often encountered on food labels as a color additive. The secondary metabolite curcumin may also exert antibacterial, anodyne, antiarthritic, and choleretic potentials in addition to the previously mentioned activities (HA n.d.). While the color of Turmeric is attributed to the constituent curcumin, the color of carrots arises from a class of constituents referred to as carotenoids.
Carotenoids
While hues of red to purple of flowers, fruits and stems too, are typically associated with anthocyanins. Many deciduous plants that reveal the colors associated with autumn, is due to the presence of carotenoids, from light yellow including orange to deep red. Not so much a flavonoid, instead resides in the tetrater-terpenoid (soon to be discussed) group of constituents, more specifically a linear chain, contain 4 terpene groups with 10 carbon atoms per group (Sun T., et al. 2022).
While carotenoids may be sourced from roots, flowers, fruits and seeds, they are also produced by some bacteria, algae and fungi as well. Interestingly enough many carotenoids are associated with symbiosis of bacteria in higher plants. Often plants utilize these structures for pigmentation, photosynthesis, UV protection and chemical messaging (Sun, T., et al. 2022). The carotenoid derivatives such as Xanthophylls (typically yellow) are the oxygen containing carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin. Which have been shown to support ocular health in a range of degenerative eye disorders such as Cataracts and Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD). The unsaturated hydrocarbons which do not contain oxygen would be alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, collectively referred to as carotenes (Abdel-Aal, E.-S. M., Young, C. J. 2009). Beta-carotene (red-orange pigments) or provitamin A is a precursor of retinol or retinoic acid (biologically active vitamin A). Sometimes a simple analogy of “retinol” to “retina” is used to remember the beneficial activities upon ocular health (particularly hyperopia & scotopic). Additionally carotenoids potentially exert antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and cardioprotective activities upon the body which are among other beneficial outcomes not mentioned. In relation to the terpene structure, bioaccessibility of carotenoids is dependent on the solubility, which arises in conjunction of lipophilic mediums such as fats and lipids. Common food containing carotenoids might include orange, tangerine, cantaloupe, red pepper and tomatoes, avocado, squash, spinach and kale in addition to many others (Higdon, J., et al. 2019).
After briefly discussing the phenolic constituents classification of pigments and properties of different flavonoids and the alike. Perhaps we’re considering a nice colorful meal to exercise our new found knowledge of plants on. In addition to the properties and classification of plant pigments, let’s consider the traditional views of the constituents as well.
The phenolic compounds that largely contribute to the pigments of plants like that of the Anthocyanins that produce hues ranging from pink to red including purple and violet too, all the way to blue and even black. Or the Betalains responsible for yellow to red pigments of many desert dwellers. In addition to the bronze to yellow colors that is Chalcones. Including Aurones which express the brightest of yellows. As well as the Anthoxanthins (Flavones and Flavonols) white to yellow and the orange of curcuminoids. May have been utilized in tattooing and perhaps in the production of ancient artifacts. Serving as useful colorants since antiquity in the dyeing of fabrics like that of jute, cotton, wool, even fine silks.
Energetics
The energetic view of phenolic constituents have a cooler, dryer, heavier quintessential influence about them. Unlike the following group of terpenoid constituents the “Aromatic” compounds which tend to have a warming dispersing lightness that resides within them. Especially when consumed in a warm state. The warmth aids in dispersion contributing to the raising energy.
Aromatics
The colorless aromatic hydrocarbon, Benzoic acid was first identified From Gum Benzoin around the sixteenth century. A aromatic resinous exudate excreted from a number of Styrax trees of the Styracaceae family of plants gave way to the classification of Benzene (A.C.S. 2020). Classified as hydrocarbons containing 6 carbon molecules joined by 1 hydrogen molecule each, in a cyclic bond forming a ring to compose a “Aromatic” hydrocarbon (Pubchem 2022). This low carbon to hydrogen ratio is remarkably volatile and is typically associated with a pleasantly sweet aroma.
Benzene
Whether there be an aroma or not, “Volatile oils” now a catch-all term for compounds containing a benzene ring aka a low hydrogen to carbon structure. These structures can be differentiated by the amount of rings and accompanied molecules in the compound. Plants containing just a few aromatic components may be classified to one subgroup, while plants containing hundreds of aromatic components may be subdivided into multiple groups.
Terpenoids
This group of constituents are the aromatic compounds responsible for the tastes and aromas of plants. Arising in both a primary and secondary nature, those terpenoids that are present in just about all plants would be primary. Whereas those of a secondary nature (not present in all plants) may be referred to as “Specialized Terpenoids”. Terpenoids an all encompassing term referencing not only terpenes but also components of terpene moieties and their associated derivatives. The designation “terpene” was ultimately derived from Terebinth aka the Turpentine Tree (Pistachia terebinthus) whose resin are rich in terpenes.
2-Methylbuta-1,3-diene (Isoprene)
The diversity of Terpenoid structures is vast and classification occurs in accordance with the amount and type of molecules composing the Terpenoid structures. One common occurrence, fundamental to all Terpenoids is the “Isoprene rule” in which there are 5 carbon atoms for every Isoprene (unsaturated hydrocarbon) unit (Pichersky, E., Raguso, R. A. 2016). Case in point, Mono-terpenes (C10 H16), Sesqui-terpenes (C15 H24), Di-terpenes (C20 H32), Tri-terpenes (C25 H48). While plants containing many, upwards of 30 to 40+ (tetraterpenes and carotenoids) carbon atoms would be steroid and hormonal precursors.
Subdivision of the different terpenoid structures is in relation to the chemical composition of the individual aromatic components. Which is generally associated with the type of plants they occur in. To exemplify this, Mint plants (Mentha spp.) contain Menthol, Pine trees (Pinus spp.) containing Pinene and Limes (Citrus spp.) containing Limonene, so on and so on (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Typically the -ene suffix indicates the classification of a terpene structure. These constituents participate in plant growth, development, pollination and defense in addition to others (HA n.d.). Terpenoid compounds are the largest group of secondary metabolites known and studied, recognized for their therapeutic qualities.
EOS
Terpenoid structures are soluble in lipids, fats and ethanol, while being slightly soluble in water, with the greatest solubility arising in high percentage hydroethanolic solvents. Small terpene structures such as monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes have the ability to be extracted through steam distillation. The end product of which is the commonly recognized “Essential Oils”. No matter the delivery (pulmonary, oral or transdermal) route, volatile oils are rapidly absorbed and excreted, with excretion primarily taking place via the renal and respiratory routes. Generally, terpenes are thought to possess anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, antiparasitic and antioxidant activity (HA n.d.).
Spices
The volatile oil rich plants that are simple Monoterpenes (C10 H16) and Sesquiterpenes (C15 H24) are generally associated with the “Spices” utilized in the culinary arts for their aromatic and stomachic qualities. Common in Mexican cuisine as the sudorific action that stimulates sweating is utilized as a febrifuge to cool the body from the hot environment of Mexico. This same stimulating action is often employed medicinally to support digestion, blood circulation and even subdue the common cold when used at the onset and to break a fever that may accompany it. Generally speaking we can say volatile oil rich plants are often stimulating, diaphoretic, sudorific, expectorant, carminative, diuretic, stomachic, antispasmodic and antimicrobial (HA n.d.).
As the diversity is complex and the accompanying effects extensive, only a small number of examples will be presented. Eucalyptol of (Eucalyptus globulus) is expectorant, Cinnamaldehyde of (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is anti-inflammatory, or take Linalool of (Lavandula angustifolia) is a sedative or Myrcene of (Humulus lupulus) is analgesic. Menthol is diaphoretic, Pinene a known bronchial dilator, Limonene an antidepressant (HA n.d.).
Alcohol aromatic polymers like that of Menthol may be considered a non-toxic stimulant. Aldehyde aromatic compounds such as Citronella is typically considered antiseptic and sedative. Sulfuric aromatic chains like that which resides in Brassica and Allium plants are often acrid (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Ketone aromatic components such as Thujone is a Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) competitive antagonist (Höld, K. M., Sirisoma, N. S., et al. 2000).
Resins
Oftentimes plants secrete terpenes to produce an exudate referred to as “Pitch”. These plant resins are potent oxidized aromatic oils that get secreted from intracellular canals, referred to as “Resin Passages”. Primarily associated with gymnosperms, typically conifers (pines, cedars, cypress, firs, etc.), is also sometimes excreted from some angiosperm buds and flowers as well (Elpel, T. J. 2018). These complex compounds do not contain nitrogen and form a thick sticky gooey plant exudate that solidifies into a hard semi translucent mass sealing off the wound. This occurs in response to environmental stressors such as injury from pathogens, insects and animals (Heidi 2021). The pungency of the resins work as deterrents, while the stickiness traps and subdues the offense. These plant exudates like gums secrete out onto the exterior surface of plants. Although, resins are extremely viscid and completely hydrophobic and solubility arises in ethanol and hot oils.
Historically traded and cherished for the unique beauty, fossilized plant resins form amber. For thousands of years resins have been utilized as incense and water proofing agents in addition to other purposes. Currently plant resins are used as furniture varnish, perfumery, artificial flavoring along with solvent, cleaning, and insecticide production amongst others.
Medicinally these potent oxidized oils have potential expectorant, diaphoretic, demulcent, antispasmodic and diuretic actions upon the body in addition to others. The viscosity of plant resins are difficult to metabolize and excessive use is hard on the renal tubules (Elpel, T. J. 2018). That being said, that same viscosity is a useful “scraping” agent which may aid in ridding the body of “stuck” deeply embedded toxins. The warm stimulating aspects are useful when topically applied to arthritic joints and a sore musculature.
Latex
Plant latexes often contain terpene structural components such as polyisoprene, sesquiterpene lactones, diterpenes, triterpenes and cardenolides (Pichersky, E., Raguso, R. A. 2016). Generally plant latex is a white to cream colored milky emulsion that exudes from specialized latex vessels. These specialized vessels are referred to as Laticifer cells (Krstić, G., et al. 2016) and secrete latex in response to injury as a means of defense from herbivores. Fairly common amongst angiosperms like those residing in the asteraceae plant family such as Thistles, Dandelions, or Chicory. The flavors of latex range from quite tasty to bitter and acrid and even noxious and highly toxic containing dangerous alkaloids. While bitter latexes may support digestion and assimilation, acrid latexes are more stimulating promoting mobility and relaxation while supporting excretion. Some latexes are awfully noxious and can be quite irritating effecting respiration and cardiac rhythm (Elpel, T. J. 2018).
Papain
Another plant enzyme demonstrating proteolytic and esterase (enzymatic hydrolization) reactions would be Papain. Papain may be obtained from scarification of an unripe Papaya (Carica papaya), a white latex is excreted in responds to the wound acting as a deterrent thus protecting the unripe fruit. Papain may be utilized the same as Bromelain. Additionally in correlation with harvesting methods the enzymatic latex may be used as a topical agent that modulates inflammation (HA n.d.).
Alkaloids
Our next group of constituents up for discussion is the Alkaloids. This is a large group of compounds with roughly 5000 known and studied alkaloid structures. Although vastly diverse, one common occurrence in all Alkaloids is that they contain a nitrogen component. Available nitrogen circulates freely via the SAP otherwise accumulates in different tissues of the plant. Plants utilize the nitrogen components in protein synthesis, when growth is accelerated a demand for protein is required. In turn nitrogen production is increased, incidentally this rapid metabolism ineffectively utilizes the ramped up nitrogen content (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Typically associated with more torrid areas, plants use these secondary metabolites to support growth regulation and aid in plant defense in addition to other functions.
Medicinally many alkaloids have strong outcomes on mammalian nervous systems. Whether it be to excite or depress the system, influencing respiration, circulation, cardiac rhythm and vascular pressure etc. Case in point, Capsaicin and Caffeine alkaloids are known stimulants, whereas Morphine or Scopolamine alkaloids are familiar depressants, including autonomic division effectors such as Atropine or Yohimbine (HA n.d.). A narcotic is any alkaloid that suppresses or dampens the nervous system (Elpel, T. J. 2018). Often the taste of alkaloids is quite bitter, signifying the potential outcomes on the body. A sort of plant warning system aka a deterrent if you will. Many alkaloids are quite dangerous and toxic to animals but often times, alkaloids prove to be very beneficial. Soluble in water and ethanol, with greater extraction accompanying more acidic solutions such as low potential hydrogen (acidic) water and mid to high percentage hydroethanolic solvents.
Let us elaborate, there are numerous and vastly diverse beneficial alkaloids. So much so that we will exemplify this with only a few plants. The suffix -in, ine, or -ane typically indicate the alkaloid classification.
Members of the Papaveraceae family have been traditionally utilized for their medicinal alkaloids, often times employed as hypotensive, anxiolytic and sedative agents. Alkaloids such as Pavine and Berberine are thought to be at the core of the poppy extracts (HA n.d.).
Isoquinoline
The Berberidaceae plant family such as Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) root, Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) root and Oregon Grape Root (Mahonia aquifolium) root bark, carry a group of secondary metabolites regarded as Isoquinoline alkaloids. Berberine in particular has been associated with antibacterial, antiparasitic, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic and hypotensive properties (USDA 1992-2016). Berberine being extremely bitter is potentially the mode of action as berberine shows low bioavailability and works more locally opposed to systemically. Isolated primarily from the roots, rhizomes, stems and bark of plants that contain these constituents and unlike other isoquinoline alkaloids, berberine is water soluble (HA n.d.). For example plants such as Gold thread (Coptis trifolia) rhizome, Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictorides) root and Yellow root (Xanthorhiza simplicissama) root, may be included with those that contain berberine (USDA 1992-2016).
Xanthine
Yerba Matē (Ilex paraguariensis) has a set of constituents known a Xanthine alkaloids and their derivatives Theobromine, Theophylline and Caffeine. Theobromine, Theophylline and Caffeine are known for their stimulating effects on the heart, while Theophylline acts on the respiratory system serving as a bronchial dilator and on the central nervous system (Duke, J. 1992) elevating mood, activity and alertness. These properties in addition to the polyphonic flavonoids Quercetin and Rutin along with the remaining constituents serve as useful nervines in mental and physical depression (HA n.d.). I. paraguariensis potentially elicits nervine, anxiolytic, analgesic, diuretic, anti-rheumatic, hypoglycemic, and anticarcinogenic properties in addition to others (Duke, J. 1992). Tea (Camellia sinensis), Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and Coffee (Coffee arabica) for example also contain Xanthine derivatives (USDA 1992-2016).
Purines
Pruine type alkaloids such as caffeine may stimulate hormone production particularly the chatecholamines Norepinephrine and Epinephrine (adrenaline). Typically over consumed amongst people and more often than not is accompanied with agitation and irritability. Including nervousness, irregular and rapid heart rate, heartburn, elevated blood sugar and cholesterol (Elpel, T. J. 2018). I suppose medicinally speaking, in a few cases caffeine as a last resort may possibly support those experiencing lethargy, fatigue, bradycardia and a few situations of cognitive decline. If you are one of those individuals that consume caffeine habitually, I strongly suggest finding other means of stimulation. Perhaps a strong cup of that Drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera) we spoke about earlier as M. Oleifera not only contains amino acids but vitamins and nutrients including a number of different polyphenols and flavonoids.
In Closing
Plants have the ability to interact with their environment and adapt to the situations that arise, utilizing a multitude of constituents in a unified array of ways. flourishing by creating these phytochemicals that support growth, development and reproduction while encompassing plant defense and attraction. After all plants are incapable of fleeing from danger, nor are they able to go get help when they’ve become ill. These constituents help the plants to succeed in their environment.
We discussed how plant molecules contain carbon bonding in the makeup of organic chemical constituents. Chemical constituents like the primary metabolites that are saccharide compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which partially compose roots, tubers and rhizomes. Including how saccharides come together and condense to form more complex compounds like the polysaccharides. Polysaccharides such as the cellulose of leaves, stems and bark and when these structures are consumed are considered to be dietary roughage such as fiber. Or how saccharide structures form mucilaginous compounds that potentially aids us in our mobility. We spoke of the other primary metabolites protein and lipids, lipids like castor oil which aids us in the removal of stagnation and toxins. We also learned that saccharide structures are components of secondary plant metabolites too, such as glycosides and the storage of inactive constituents for later use. Including how saccharides are apart of the formation of aromatic amino acids, like the glucosinolates of Moringa plants and how Moringa has been implemented with those traversing cancer. We discussed how the secondary plant metabolites are not essential to growth, development and reproduction but are a formation of altered and broken down primary metabolites. In our discussion we addressed that secondary metabolites are more reactive and compose phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids and alkaloids. More precisely we talked about the power of phenols and the antioxidant effects of proanthocyanidins, the antimicrobial activities of tannins and the anti-inflammatory actions of organic acids. We became familiar with flavonoid pigments, the pink to black hues of anthocyanins, the bronze colors of chalcones and aurones displaying the brightest of yellows. We discussed aromatic hydrocarbons of benzene and isoprene. Isoprene a fundamental component of terpene compounds, which is a major contributor to the anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of terpenoids. We also touched on the oxidation of these aromatic oils and their formation of plant resins and the medicinal potentials.
We have taken from a table of prepared of knowledge, numerous basic principles and ideas of plant compounds. We became familiar with how plants create chemicals that participate in their survival. Which oftentimes has the same effects on us, perhaps aiding us in our survival as well. Hopefully bringing a bit of validation to the simplification of “this plant is good for”.
Plant Constituents; Active Isolation
Now that mysticism is no longer the discernment the yields the healing outcomes, please continue to enjoy the journey in the wonderful world of plant knowledge.
🜁 🜃 🜀 🜂 🜄
Brought to you from Herbal Restoration LLC, Written By Herbalist S. Reese. All Rights Reserved © 2024 Herbal Restoration LLC.
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